Critical Thinking: A Definition
Two definitions of critical thinking will be offered here as a reference for our work. The first is offered by Robert Ennis and is rootle in philosophy. "Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do". Ennis believes that terms are key to this definition: practical, reflective, reasonable, belief, and action. Critical thinking is an activity, both practical and reflective, that has reasonable belief or action as its goal. When we come to investigate the skills that emerge from this definition, well discover chat Ennis's definition includes dispositions as well as abilities.
The second definition was proposed by Robert Sternberg and reflects Sternberg's psychological concerns about thinking and intelligence. Critical thinking comprises the mental processes, strategies, and representations people use to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts" As Sternberg noted, his definition emerged from a psychological analysis of critical thinking, especially as it is thrilled to intelligence. Tracing Stemberg's view of intelligence will help us to discover those skills that seem most closely associated with critical thinking.
Having established in connection between thinking analysis biological else, the brain, we now turn our attention to the relations; tip between intelligence and thinking. We have all taken cognitive abilities tests and speculated about their results in comparison to our own assessments of our potential. You probably think in a similar way about your students: Are they working to their potential? How can I help them to improve their performance?
If we are 13 help students improve their performance on 1Q tests, achieve better grades, and prepare for life's problems, we would be wise not to be trapped by traditional views of intelligence. If we hope to did our students by directly teaching thinking skills, we must turn to a broader, more qualitative view of intelligence.
Any theory of intelligence must be able to do three things: (a) relate intelligence to an individual's internal world and explain what happens when a person thinks intelligently; (b) accept the relation between the external world and that person's intelligence, and explain how intelligence functions in the "real world"; and (c' relate intelligence to the individuals’ experiences, ith these criteria in mind, let's turn to three current interpretations of intelligence that have particular relevance for the caching of thinking skills.
Sunday, August 29, 2010
Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research
Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research
Overview
In planning and carrying out an educational research project, one must never lose sight of the special requirements and problems involved in working with people. The "human relations" aspect of educational research is particularly important when the research project is carried out in the public schools. When using schoolchildren as subjects, it is necessary to obtain the understanding and cooperation of school administrators, teachers, parents, interested community groups, and the subjects themselves. Thus, the procedures section of the student's research plan should describe how he intends to gain school cooperation, how he will deal with potential human relations problems that may arise, and what precautions he will take to ensure that the plan meets the ethical standards and legal requirements that have been established for behavioral science research.
Objectives
Identify aspects of a research situation that involve ethical questions or principles.
Describe the legal constraints to educational research imposed by federal law.
Discuss the kinds of questions the researcher must answer when presenting a research plan to school officials.
Slate steps that can be taken to protect the rights of individuals who are to serve as subjects in a research project.
Define dehoaxing and desensitizing, identify research situations where these are required, and describe what steps should be taken to dehoax or desensitize research subjects.
Ethical Principles
In recent years the ethical aspects of behavioral research have been of increasing concern to the Congress, scientists, private citizens, and institutions that support this type of research. In part this concern reflects the great growth of behavioral research and its impact on people's lives. Moreover, although most researchers have acied in an ethical manner, there have been some abuses of individuals' rights.
The American Psychological Association has recently published a set of ten ethical principles for the pursuit of research activities. In planning a research project, the student should study these carefully:
In planning a study the investigator has the responsibility to make a careful evaluation of its ethical acceptability, taking into account the following additional principles for research with human beings. To the extent that this appraisal, weighing scientific and humane values, suggests a compromise of any principle, the investigator incurs an increasingly serious obligation to seek ethical advice and to observe stringent safeguards to protect the rights of the human research participants.
Responsibility for the establishment and maintenance of acceptable ethical practice in research always remains with the individual investigator. The investigator is also responsible for the ethical treatment of research participants by collaborators, assistants, students, and employees, all of whom, however, incur parallel obligations.
Ethical practice requires the investigator to inform the participant of all features of the research that might reasonably be expected to influence willingness to participate, and to explain all other aspects of the research about which the participant inquires. Failure to make full disclosure imposes additional force to the investigator's abiding responsibility to protect the welfare and dignity of the research participant.
Openness and honesty are essential characteristics of the relationship between investigator and research participant. When the methodological requirements of a study necessitate concealment or deception, the investigator is required to insure as soon as possible the participant's understanding of the reasons for this action and of a sufficient justification for the procedures employed.
Ethical practice requires the investigator to respect the individual's freedom to decline to participate in or withdraw from research. The obligation to protect this freedom requires special vigilance when the investigator is in a position of power over the participant, as, for example, when the participant is a student, client, employee, or otherwise is in a dual relationship with the investigator.
Ethically acceptable research begins with the establishment of a dear and fair agreement between the investigator and the research participant that clarifies the responsibilities of each. The investigator has the obligation to honor all promises and commitments included in that agreement.
The ethical investigator protects participants from physical and mental discomfort, harm, and danger. If a risk of such consequences exists, the investigator is required to inform the participant of that fact, secure consent before proceeding, and take all possible measures to minimize distress. A research procedure must not be used if it is likely to cause serious or lasting harm to a participant.
After the data are collected, the investigator provides the participant with information about the nature of the study and to remove any misconceptions that may have arisen. Where scientific or human values justify delaying or withholding information, the investigator acquires a special responsibility to assure that there are no damaging consequences for the participant.
When research procedures may result in undesirable consequences for the individual participant, the investigator has the responsibility to detect and remove or correct these consequences, including where relevant, long-term after effects
Information obtained about the individual research participants during the course of an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance. When the possibility exists that others may obtain access to such information, this possibility, together with the plans for protecting confidentiality, should be explained to the participants as part of the procedure for obtaining informed consent.
A psychologist using animals in research adheres to the provisions of the Rules Regarding Animals, drawn up by the Committee on Precautions and Standards in Animal Experimentation and adopted by the American Psychological Association.
Investigations of human participants using drugs should be conducted only in such settings as clinics, hospitals, or research facilities maintaining appropriate safeguards for the partidpants.
In educational research carried out by graduate students, the principles related to informing participants (c), obtaining permission from the subject or his parents (e), debriefing subjects at the end of the study (h), and protecting confidentiality of research data (j) are the ones most likely to be violated.
The protection of individual privacy in educational research involves two factors: consent of the individual as to what shall be disclosed to the researcher, and confidential use of research data collected on individuals. The researcher should obtain the consent of the individual before gathering data on him. In the case of schoolchildren, the consent of parents and appropriate school personnel should be obtained. Ideally the student should .receive some explanation of the tests and experimental procedures to be used. This explanation must satisfy the student that his participation is important and desirable and that it is to his advantage to cooperate. There are occasions, however, when it would invalidate the research findings to tell the individual beforehand the purpose of the study and the type of information that he will be expected to provide during the course of the research project. For example, in some experiments it may be necessary to give the individual false information in order to experimentally arouse or decrease his motivation. Nevertheless, even in this situation the researcher should still obtain the individual's consent to be in the experiment, and he can tell the individual that he will be informed of the experiment's purpose the study is completed. Also, if possible, the researcher should try to obtain data without using the names of the individuals involved.
There is clear evidence that the results of some studies can be drastically altered if research subjects are informed of all details of the research. For example, in a study by Resnick and Schwartz, volunteer subjects were placed in two groups, were given cards containing a verb and the six pronouns, we, you, they, she, he, and were asked to construct sentences using the verb and one pronoun. During the last 80 of the 100 trials the investigator reinforced the subjects with verbal approval each time the subject constructed a sentence which began with I or we, to determine the effects of the reinforcement. The results showed that use of I-we sentences increased for uninformed subjects and decreased for informed subjects. In this study, fully informing the subjects led to serious distortion of the results. Should the need to inform subjects, even in studies like the work of Resnick and Schwartz where no conceivable harm or danger to the subjects is possible, take precedent over the need to learn more about human behavior?. The effect of verbal reinforcement on human behavior is certainly an important question in education. The pros and cons raised when such studies are considered in relationship to ethical standards certainly merit careful consideration.
Once research data have been collected, the researcher should make certain that no one has access to the data except himself and possibly a few co-investigators. The research subjects, of course, should be told at the outset that will have access to the data. Whenever possible the names of subjects should be removed from data-collection instruments and replaced by a code. This procedure is particularly important to follow when the data are to be stored over a relatively long period of time. The researcher should take particular care with data that could conceivably be subpoenaed. Unfortunately, educational research data do not have privileged status (as does communication between husband and wife, lawyer and client, etc.) in most states. The confidentiality of the individual must further be protected by 'tot giving individual names in any publications that may result from the research project.
The student can avoid problems relating to invasion of privacy if he includes procedures in his research design for individual consent and preservation of confidentiality and if he carries out his project in an ethically responsible manner.
Overview
In planning and carrying out an educational research project, one must never lose sight of the special requirements and problems involved in working with people. The "human relations" aspect of educational research is particularly important when the research project is carried out in the public schools. When using schoolchildren as subjects, it is necessary to obtain the understanding and cooperation of school administrators, teachers, parents, interested community groups, and the subjects themselves. Thus, the procedures section of the student's research plan should describe how he intends to gain school cooperation, how he will deal with potential human relations problems that may arise, and what precautions he will take to ensure that the plan meets the ethical standards and legal requirements that have been established for behavioral science research.
Objectives
Identify aspects of a research situation that involve ethical questions or principles.
Describe the legal constraints to educational research imposed by federal law.
Discuss the kinds of questions the researcher must answer when presenting a research plan to school officials.
Slate steps that can be taken to protect the rights of individuals who are to serve as subjects in a research project.
Define dehoaxing and desensitizing, identify research situations where these are required, and describe what steps should be taken to dehoax or desensitize research subjects.
Ethical Principles
In recent years the ethical aspects of behavioral research have been of increasing concern to the Congress, scientists, private citizens, and institutions that support this type of research. In part this concern reflects the great growth of behavioral research and its impact on people's lives. Moreover, although most researchers have acied in an ethical manner, there have been some abuses of individuals' rights.
The American Psychological Association has recently published a set of ten ethical principles for the pursuit of research activities. In planning a research project, the student should study these carefully:
In planning a study the investigator has the responsibility to make a careful evaluation of its ethical acceptability, taking into account the following additional principles for research with human beings. To the extent that this appraisal, weighing scientific and humane values, suggests a compromise of any principle, the investigator incurs an increasingly serious obligation to seek ethical advice and to observe stringent safeguards to protect the rights of the human research participants.
Responsibility for the establishment and maintenance of acceptable ethical practice in research always remains with the individual investigator. The investigator is also responsible for the ethical treatment of research participants by collaborators, assistants, students, and employees, all of whom, however, incur parallel obligations.
Ethical practice requires the investigator to inform the participant of all features of the research that might reasonably be expected to influence willingness to participate, and to explain all other aspects of the research about which the participant inquires. Failure to make full disclosure imposes additional force to the investigator's abiding responsibility to protect the welfare and dignity of the research participant.
Openness and honesty are essential characteristics of the relationship between investigator and research participant. When the methodological requirements of a study necessitate concealment or deception, the investigator is required to insure as soon as possible the participant's understanding of the reasons for this action and of a sufficient justification for the procedures employed.
Ethical practice requires the investigator to respect the individual's freedom to decline to participate in or withdraw from research. The obligation to protect this freedom requires special vigilance when the investigator is in a position of power over the participant, as, for example, when the participant is a student, client, employee, or otherwise is in a dual relationship with the investigator.
Ethically acceptable research begins with the establishment of a dear and fair agreement between the investigator and the research participant that clarifies the responsibilities of each. The investigator has the obligation to honor all promises and commitments included in that agreement.
The ethical investigator protects participants from physical and mental discomfort, harm, and danger. If a risk of such consequences exists, the investigator is required to inform the participant of that fact, secure consent before proceeding, and take all possible measures to minimize distress. A research procedure must not be used if it is likely to cause serious or lasting harm to a participant.
After the data are collected, the investigator provides the participant with information about the nature of the study and to remove any misconceptions that may have arisen. Where scientific or human values justify delaying or withholding information, the investigator acquires a special responsibility to assure that there are no damaging consequences for the participant.
When research procedures may result in undesirable consequences for the individual participant, the investigator has the responsibility to detect and remove or correct these consequences, including where relevant, long-term after effects
Information obtained about the individual research participants during the course of an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance. When the possibility exists that others may obtain access to such information, this possibility, together with the plans for protecting confidentiality, should be explained to the participants as part of the procedure for obtaining informed consent.
A psychologist using animals in research adheres to the provisions of the Rules Regarding Animals, drawn up by the Committee on Precautions and Standards in Animal Experimentation and adopted by the American Psychological Association.
Investigations of human participants using drugs should be conducted only in such settings as clinics, hospitals, or research facilities maintaining appropriate safeguards for the partidpants.
In educational research carried out by graduate students, the principles related to informing participants (c), obtaining permission from the subject or his parents (e), debriefing subjects at the end of the study (h), and protecting confidentiality of research data (j) are the ones most likely to be violated.
The protection of individual privacy in educational research involves two factors: consent of the individual as to what shall be disclosed to the researcher, and confidential use of research data collected on individuals. The researcher should obtain the consent of the individual before gathering data on him. In the case of schoolchildren, the consent of parents and appropriate school personnel should be obtained. Ideally the student should .receive some explanation of the tests and experimental procedures to be used. This explanation must satisfy the student that his participation is important and desirable and that it is to his advantage to cooperate. There are occasions, however, when it would invalidate the research findings to tell the individual beforehand the purpose of the study and the type of information that he will be expected to provide during the course of the research project. For example, in some experiments it may be necessary to give the individual false information in order to experimentally arouse or decrease his motivation. Nevertheless, even in this situation the researcher should still obtain the individual's consent to be in the experiment, and he can tell the individual that he will be informed of the experiment's purpose the study is completed. Also, if possible, the researcher should try to obtain data without using the names of the individuals involved.
There is clear evidence that the results of some studies can be drastically altered if research subjects are informed of all details of the research. For example, in a study by Resnick and Schwartz, volunteer subjects were placed in two groups, were given cards containing a verb and the six pronouns, we, you, they, she, he, and were asked to construct sentences using the verb and one pronoun. During the last 80 of the 100 trials the investigator reinforced the subjects with verbal approval each time the subject constructed a sentence which began with I or we, to determine the effects of the reinforcement. The results showed that use of I-we sentences increased for uninformed subjects and decreased for informed subjects. In this study, fully informing the subjects led to serious distortion of the results. Should the need to inform subjects, even in studies like the work of Resnick and Schwartz where no conceivable harm or danger to the subjects is possible, take precedent over the need to learn more about human behavior?. The effect of verbal reinforcement on human behavior is certainly an important question in education. The pros and cons raised when such studies are considered in relationship to ethical standards certainly merit careful consideration.
Once research data have been collected, the researcher should make certain that no one has access to the data except himself and possibly a few co-investigators. The research subjects, of course, should be told at the outset that will have access to the data. Whenever possible the names of subjects should be removed from data-collection instruments and replaced by a code. This procedure is particularly important to follow when the data are to be stored over a relatively long period of time. The researcher should take particular care with data that could conceivably be subpoenaed. Unfortunately, educational research data do not have privileged status (as does communication between husband and wife, lawyer and client, etc.) in most states. The confidentiality of the individual must further be protected by 'tot giving individual names in any publications that may result from the research project.
The student can avoid problems relating to invasion of privacy if he includes procedures in his research design for individual consent and preservation of confidentiality and if he carries out his project in an ethically responsible manner.
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Telaah yang dilaksanakan untuk memecahkan suatu masalah yang pada dasarnya bertumpu pada penelaahan kritis dan mendalam terhadap bahan-bahan pustaka yang relevan. Telaah pustaka semacam ini biasanya dilakukan dengan cara mengumpulkan data atau informasi dari berbagai sumber pustaka yang kemudian disajikan dengan cara baru dan atau untuk keperluan baru.
Dalam hal ini bahan-bahan pustaka itu diperlukan sebagai sumber ide untuk menggali pemikiran atau gagasan baru, sebagai bahan dasar untuk melakukan deduksi dari pengetahuan yang sudah ada, sehingga kerangka teori baru dapat dikembangkan, atau sebagai dasar pemecahan masalah.
Format Proposal Kajian Pustaka
1. Latar Belakang Masalah
Bagian ini berisi uraian atau gambaran umum yang dapat diperoleh dari koran, majalah, buku, jurnal, laporan penelitian, seminar, atau keadaan lapangan mengenai hal-hal yang ada kaitannya dengan masalah yang diteliti.
Gambaran umum ini dapat bersifat mendukung atau menunjang pendapat peneliti atau pun bersifat tidak mendukung atau menolak harapan peneliti. Selain itu juga dipaparkan uraian pemantapan terhadap pemahaman masalah, misalnya mengapa masalah yang dikemukakan dipandang menarik, penting, dan perlu ditelaah.
2. Rumusan Masalah
Bagian ini merupakan pengembangan dari uraian latar belakang masalah yang menunjukkan bahwa masalah yang akan ditelaah memang belum terjawab atau belum dipecahkan secara memuaskan. Uraian tersebut didukung berbagai publikasi yang berhubungan dengan masalah yang dikaji, yang mencakup aspek yang dikaji, konsep-konsep yang berkaitan dengan hal yang akan ditulis, dan teori yang melandasi kajian. Pembahasan ini hanya berisi uraian yang memang relevan dengan masalah yang akan dikaji serta disajikan secara sistematis dan terpadu.
Selanjutnya dituliskan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijawab melalui telaah pustaka (dalam bentuk kalimat tanya), yang memuat variabel/hubungan antarvariabel yang akan dikaji. Kata tanya yang digunakan berupa apa, mengapa, bagaimana, sejauh mana, kapan, siapa, dan sebagainya bergantung pada ruang lingkup masalah yang akan dibahas.
3. Tujuan Penelitian
Bagian ini memberikan gambaran yang khusus atau spesifik mengenai arah dari kegiatan kajian kepustakaan yang dilakukan, berupa keinginan realistis peneliti tentang hasil yang akan diperoleh. Tujuan kajian harus mempunyai kaitan atau hubungan yang relevan dengan masalah yang akan diteliti. Sebagai contoh adalah mengkaji kehidupan orang-orang yang terkenal dalam suatu bidang studi untuk mengetahui pengalaman-pengalaman mereka, bagaimana usaha mereka untuk meneliti dan menemukan apa yang sekarang dianggap sebagai hal yang biasa saja.
4. Kegunaan Penelitian
Bagian ini memberikan gambaran yang khusus atau spesifik mengenai arah dari kegiatan kajian kepustakaan yang dilakukan, berupa keinginan realistis peneliti tentang hasil yang akan diperoleh. Tujuan kajian harus mempunyai kaitan atau hubungan yang relevan dengan masalah yang akan diteliti. Sebagai contoh adalah mengkaji kehidupan orang-orang yang terkenal dalam suatu bidang studi untuk mengetahui pengalaman-pengalaman mereka, bagaimana usaha mereka untuk meneliti dan menemukan apa yang sekarang dianggap sebagai hal yang biasa saja.
5. Metode Kajian
Metode kajian menjelaskan semua langkah yang dikerjakan penulis sejak awal hingga akhir. Pada bagian ini dapat dimuat hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan anggapan-anggapan dasar atau fakta-fakta yang dipandang benar tanpa adanya verifikasi dan keterbatasan, yaitu aspek-aspek tertentu yang dijadikan kerangka berpikir. Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis masalah dan variabel yang terdapat dalam judul kajian. Analisis masalah menghasilkan variabel dan hubungan antarvariabel. Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis variabel dengan mengajukan pertanyaan mengenai masing-masing variabel dan pertanyaan yang berkaitan dengan hubungan antarvariabel. Analisis ini diperlukan untuk menyusun alur berpikir dalam memecahkan masalah.
Perlu ditekankan bahwa tulisan tentang metode kajian hendaknya didasarkan atas kajian teori dan khasanah ilmu, yaitu paradigma, teori, konsep, prinsip,hukum, postulat, dan asumsi keilmuan yang relevan dengan masalah yang dibahas.
6. Definisi Istilah
Bagian ini memberikan penjelasan mengenai istilah-istilah yang digunakan agar terdapat kesamaan penafsiran dan terhindar dari kekaburan. Bagian ini juga memberikan keterangan rinci pada bagian-bagian yang memerlukan uraian, misalnya alat peraga, sekolah, alat ukur, lokasi atau tempat, nilai, sikap, penghasilan, keadaan atau kondisi, keadaan sosial ekonomi, status, dan sebagainya.
7. Daftar Rujukan
Bahan pustaka yang dimasukkan dalam daftar rujukan harus sudah disebutkan dalam teks. Artinya, bahan pustaka yang hanya digunakan sebagai bahan bacaan tetapi tidak dirujuk dalam teks tidak dimasukkan dalam daftar rujukan. Sebaliknya, semua bahan pustaka yang disebutkan dalam skripsi, tesis, dan disertasi harus dicantumkan dalam daftar rujukan. Tatacara penulisan daftar rujukan.
Unsur yang ditulis secara berurutan meliputi:
1. nama penulis ditulis dengan urutan: nama akhir, nama awal, nama tengah, tanpa gelar akademik,
2. tahun penerbitan
3. judul, termasuk subjudul
4. kota tempat penerbitan, dan
5. nama penerbit.
Lihat resource yang lain:
Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian
Definisi Penelitian
Jenis-jenis Penelitian
Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
Sampling Methods
Components of a Research Proposal
Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi
Sample Proposal (English)
Sample Proposal (Arabic)
Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan
Telaah yang dilaksanakan untuk memecahkan suatu masalah yang pada dasarnya bertumpu pada penelaahan kritis dan mendalam terhadap bahan-bahan pustaka yang relevan. Telaah pustaka semacam ini biasanya dilakukan dengan cara mengumpulkan data atau informasi dari berbagai sumber pustaka yang kemudian disajikan dengan cara baru dan atau untuk keperluan baru.
Dalam hal ini bahan-bahan pustaka itu diperlukan sebagai sumber ide untuk menggali pemikiran atau gagasan baru, sebagai bahan dasar untuk melakukan deduksi dari pengetahuan yang sudah ada, sehingga kerangka teori baru dapat dikembangkan, atau sebagai dasar pemecahan masalah.
Format Proposal Kajian Pustaka
1. Latar Belakang Masalah
Bagian ini berisi uraian atau gambaran umum yang dapat diperoleh dari koran, majalah, buku, jurnal, laporan penelitian, seminar, atau keadaan lapangan mengenai hal-hal yang ada kaitannya dengan masalah yang diteliti.
Gambaran umum ini dapat bersifat mendukung atau menunjang pendapat peneliti atau pun bersifat tidak mendukung atau menolak harapan peneliti. Selain itu juga dipaparkan uraian pemantapan terhadap pemahaman masalah, misalnya mengapa masalah yang dikemukakan dipandang menarik, penting, dan perlu ditelaah.
2. Rumusan Masalah
Bagian ini merupakan pengembangan dari uraian latar belakang masalah yang menunjukkan bahwa masalah yang akan ditelaah memang belum terjawab atau belum dipecahkan secara memuaskan. Uraian tersebut didukung berbagai publikasi yang berhubungan dengan masalah yang dikaji, yang mencakup aspek yang dikaji, konsep-konsep yang berkaitan dengan hal yang akan ditulis, dan teori yang melandasi kajian. Pembahasan ini hanya berisi uraian yang memang relevan dengan masalah yang akan dikaji serta disajikan secara sistematis dan terpadu.
Selanjutnya dituliskan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijawab melalui telaah pustaka (dalam bentuk kalimat tanya), yang memuat variabel/hubungan antarvariabel yang akan dikaji. Kata tanya yang digunakan berupa apa, mengapa, bagaimana, sejauh mana, kapan, siapa, dan sebagainya bergantung pada ruang lingkup masalah yang akan dibahas.
3. Tujuan Penelitian
Bagian ini memberikan gambaran yang khusus atau spesifik mengenai arah dari kegiatan kajian kepustakaan yang dilakukan, berupa keinginan realistis peneliti tentang hasil yang akan diperoleh. Tujuan kajian harus mempunyai kaitan atau hubungan yang relevan dengan masalah yang akan diteliti. Sebagai contoh adalah mengkaji kehidupan orang-orang yang terkenal dalam suatu bidang studi untuk mengetahui pengalaman-pengalaman mereka, bagaimana usaha mereka untuk meneliti dan menemukan apa yang sekarang dianggap sebagai hal yang biasa saja.
4. Kegunaan Penelitian
Bagian ini memberikan gambaran yang khusus atau spesifik mengenai arah dari kegiatan kajian kepustakaan yang dilakukan, berupa keinginan realistis peneliti tentang hasil yang akan diperoleh. Tujuan kajian harus mempunyai kaitan atau hubungan yang relevan dengan masalah yang akan diteliti. Sebagai contoh adalah mengkaji kehidupan orang-orang yang terkenal dalam suatu bidang studi untuk mengetahui pengalaman-pengalaman mereka, bagaimana usaha mereka untuk meneliti dan menemukan apa yang sekarang dianggap sebagai hal yang biasa saja.
5. Metode Kajian
Metode kajian menjelaskan semua langkah yang dikerjakan penulis sejak awal hingga akhir. Pada bagian ini dapat dimuat hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan anggapan-anggapan dasar atau fakta-fakta yang dipandang benar tanpa adanya verifikasi dan keterbatasan, yaitu aspek-aspek tertentu yang dijadikan kerangka berpikir. Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis masalah dan variabel yang terdapat dalam judul kajian. Analisis masalah menghasilkan variabel dan hubungan antarvariabel. Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis variabel dengan mengajukan pertanyaan mengenai masing-masing variabel dan pertanyaan yang berkaitan dengan hubungan antarvariabel. Analisis ini diperlukan untuk menyusun alur berpikir dalam memecahkan masalah.
Perlu ditekankan bahwa tulisan tentang metode kajian hendaknya didasarkan atas kajian teori dan khasanah ilmu, yaitu paradigma, teori, konsep, prinsip,hukum, postulat, dan asumsi keilmuan yang relevan dengan masalah yang dibahas.
6. Definisi Istilah
Bagian ini memberikan penjelasan mengenai istilah-istilah yang digunakan agar terdapat kesamaan penafsiran dan terhindar dari kekaburan. Bagian ini juga memberikan keterangan rinci pada bagian-bagian yang memerlukan uraian, misalnya alat peraga, sekolah, alat ukur, lokasi atau tempat, nilai, sikap, penghasilan, keadaan atau kondisi, keadaan sosial ekonomi, status, dan sebagainya.
7. Daftar Rujukan
Bahan pustaka yang dimasukkan dalam daftar rujukan harus sudah disebutkan dalam teks. Artinya, bahan pustaka yang hanya digunakan sebagai bahan bacaan tetapi tidak dirujuk dalam teks tidak dimasukkan dalam daftar rujukan. Sebaliknya, semua bahan pustaka yang disebutkan dalam skripsi, tesis, dan disertasi harus dicantumkan dalam daftar rujukan. Tatacara penulisan daftar rujukan.
Unsur yang ditulis secara berurutan meliputi:
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تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف
بجامعة مالانج المحمّديّة
تخطيط البحث
مقدم لاستيفاء الوظيفة النهائية في المادة الطريقة البحث
تحت إشراف الأستاذ الدكتور محمد عين
بقلم
قانعة أغوستتينا
104231472156
جامعة مالانج الحكومية
كلّيّة الآداب
قسم الأدب العربي
مايو، 2007 م
تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف
بجامعة مالانج المحمديّة
أ. دواعى البحث
اللغة وسيلة لاتصال الفرد بغيره، وعن طريق هذا الاتصال يدرك حاجته، ويحصل مآربه، كما أنها وسيلته في التعبير عن آلامه وآماله وعواطفه (إبراهيم،1971:43). اللغة العربية من إحدى اللغات الموجودة في هذا العالم وهي في تطورها لا يتعلمها العرب فقط، بل الآخرون يتعلمون أيضا ويفهمونها. وهذه يراد بها تعلّم العلوم الدينية والعمل بها (Anshori، 1995: 1). أن دور اللغة العربية المناسب بحاجات المجتمع الإندونيسي الذي أكثرهم المسلمون هو أنها لغة القرآن والحديث والكتب الإسلامية ولغة العبادات اليومية.
وقال الفوزان وحسين وفضل (2003:ب-ت) وفي هذا العصر اهتم كثير من العرب والمسلمين بتعلم اللغة العربية وتعليمها. وعناية المسلمين- في القديم والحديث- لها أسباب كثيرة أهمها:
(1) أن اللغة العربية من الدين كما قال ابن تيمية-رحمه الله-( معلوم أن تعلّم اللغة العربية وتعليمها فرض على الكفاية) (2) قوتها سبب لعزة الاسلام والمسلمين (3) اللغة العربية من أقوى الروابط بين المسلمين (4) تعليم اللغة العربية من أهم الوسائل لعرض الثقافة الاسلامية.
المعاهد الاسلامية هي من إحدى المؤسسات التربوية غير الرسمية التي قامت بتعليم اللغة العربية منذ زمن طويل. وزاد هارون (5:1991) فإن هذه المعاهد تضع نصب عينها في تعليم القواعد من النحو والصرف، والبلاغة والعروض. والهدف العام من تعليم اللغة العربية إكساب الطلاب قدرة على فهم القرآن الكريم والأحاديث النبوية وسائر الكتب الدينية العربية.
وفقا على اختلاف أنواع المعهد المنتشر في عالم إندونيسيا، فيكون تعليم اللغة العربية في المعاهد متنوعة أيضا. بعض المعاهد يهدف تعليم اللغة العربية فيه إلى تفهيم وتعميق الدين، والأخر يهدف إلى تنمية مهارة الدارسين اللغوية حتى يمتلكوا المعلومات والمهارات في استعمال اللغة. بعبارة أخرى أن الهدف من تعليم اللغة العربية ليس أخرى سوى لمجال الدين، لكي تكون العلوم الدينية التي تصدر من الكتب العربية مدروسة ومفهومة.
وفي معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف يستعمل المدرسون الطرق التي تناسب بالطلاب. وللمدرسين أهداف منها: لتعليم شريعة الاسلام ولحرس عقيدة الاسلام.
بحثت الباحثة لوصف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف من النواحي الآتية: (1) منهج التعليم، (2) مواد التعليم، (3) وسائل التعليم، (4) تقويم التعليم.
ب. مشكلات التعليم
من خلفية البحث تستطيع الباحثة أن تأخذ المشكلة العامة " كيف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟"
والمشكلات الخاصة، هي:
1. كيف منهج التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
2. كيف مواد التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
3. كيف وسائل التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
4. كيف تقويم التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
ج. أهداف البحث
هدف البحث العام في هذا البحث " لوصف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف"
أما أهداف البحث الخاصة فهي:
1. لوصف منهج التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
2. لوصف مواد التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
3. لوصف وسائل التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
4. لوصف تقويم التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
د. منافع البحث
هذا البحث له منافع كثيرة فهي كما يلي:
1. للكاتبة، لمعرفة تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف ولتنمية مهارتها في اللغة العربية
2. لمدرّسي اللغة العربية، لمساعدتهم في تعليم اللغة العربية
3. لمتعلمي اللغة العربية، لمساعدتهم في فهم تعليم اللغة العربية ولتنمية مهارتهم في اللغة العربية
هـ. تحديد البحث
نظرا إلى أهداف البحث السابق فتحديد البحث هي:
بحث تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف من ناحية منهج التعليم ومواد التعليم ووسائل التعليم وتقويم التعليم.
{mospagebreak}
و. البحث النظري
هذا الباب يشمل المعلومات والنظرية عن تعليم اللغة العربية لدى الطلاب في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف
1. تعريف تعليم اللغة العربية
تعليم اللغة العربية: عملية التعليم لترشد الدارس ولتنمية كفاءة لغتهم العربية سلبيا كان أو إيجابيا(: Depag 1994 ). والمراد هنا إجراء تدريس اللغة العربية نفسها وليس التدريس عن الكتب المدروسة والمكتوبة باللغة العربية عامة مثل الفقه والتفسير والحديث والأخلاق.
2. تعريف المعهد
المعهد: مؤسّسة تربوية (تقليدية وعصرية) يتعلم فيه الطلاب العلوم الإسلامية ويفضّل أهمية الأخلاق الإسلامية (Salamun، 13: 2002)
3. تعريف المنهج
المنهج: خطة العمل وهو يجري في الميدان المدرسي يشمل أنواع الخبرات والدراسات التي توصلها المدرسة إلى التلاميذ. المنهج الدراسي هو نوع من التشريع يقصد به تنظيم العملية التعليمية (إبراهيم: 35: 1968).
أن المنهج الدراسي هو خطة لطريق واضح ينبغي أنيسالكه التربويون لتحقيق أهدافهم (طعيمة: 122: 1986). وزاد أنشار ( 1989:18) أن المنهج الدراسي يشمل جميع الخبرات التعليمية في المدرسة، وهو يتكون من المنهج والتخطيط والمواد والخبرات التعليمية.
4. تعريف المواد
المواد: ما يستخدمه المعلم ليملكه الطلبة ( أبو أحمدي، وفي ورديمان، 19:2003). وبتعريف أخر هي المعلومات التي يقصد بها المعلم أن يوصلها إلى التلاميذ. والمواد التعليمية تحمل الطلاب إلى الهدف التعليمي المناسب بمنهج التعليم المستخدم. المواد هي جميع المعلومات والمعارف التي أوصلها المدري إلى أذهان التلاميذ.
5. تعريف الوسائل
الوسائل التعليمية: مايزيد عملية التعليم سهلا ويزيد الدرس وضوحا للدارس. تشمل الوسائل غالبا مواد تعليم من كتب ومجلات وغيرها من مصادر معلومات مطبعات، وتشمل معينات تعليم. وما ذلك إلا يدل على أن الوسائل أكبر شمولا من العينات. كما عربه صيني والقاسمي (1984:3) في كتابهما أن الوسائل التعليمية يقصد بها عادة المعينات السمعية أو البصرية التي يستخدمها المعلم في تدريس مادته ليبلغ الهدف المقصود بأفضل صورة ممكنة ويصبغ على العملية التربوية شيئا من الاثارة والمتعة.
6. تعريف التقويم
التقويم: تعيين القيمة أو منفعة الشيئ. يحتوي التقويم حصول الاختبار لتستعمل في نظر المنفعة أو القيمة أو البرنامج أو المنتاج أو الاجراءات أو الهدف أو الفائدة المحتملة من تقريبات الاختيار المخططة لنيل الأهداف المقررة (ورطين وسانديرس، 1973: 19) في رسالة الماجستيرية:37) يعتبر التقويم عملية بسيطة تعطي أو تحدد قيمة لعدد الأهداف والأنشطة والقضايا والأعمال والإنسان (دفيس، 3:1981). وقدم واند وبرون أن التقويم يعتبر عملية لتعيين القيمة من الشيء ( يوسف وأنوار 1997: 209).
{mospagebreak}
هـ. طريقة البحث
1. منهج البحث
منهج البحث هو استيراتيجية أو كيفية عامة يستخدم الباحث لجمع المعلومات وتحليلها وتفيدها لحل المشكلات. (Ary, dkk, tanpa tahun: 50) . وأما منهج البحث البحث المستتخدم للباحثة هو منهج البحث الوصفي: وصف المعلومات، وجمعها، وتصنيفها، وتنظيمها (كميا أو كيفيا)
2. المعلومات ومصادرها
إن معلومات البحث هي نتيجة ملاحظة البحث كانت الواقع أو الرقم (Arikunto, 2002: 96). واعتمادا على مشكلات البحث وأهدافه السابق على أى المعلومات في هذا البحث هي تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف بالنظر إلى ناحية المنهج و المواد والوسائل والتقويم.
وأما مصادر المعلومات فهي المقابلة و الملاحظة و الوثيقة والاستبانة.
3. أدوات البحث
أدوات البحث هي شيء مهم في البحث لأنها متعلق بالمعلومات أو الظاهر الواقع الميداني إما معلومات كمية أو كيفية بدقة ودقيق على المعلومات المجموعة، ولنيل تلك المعلومات يحتاج إلى أدوات البحث.(Ainin, 2005: 107) وإضافة إلى ذلك أن أدوات البحث هو آلة مستخدمة في نيل البيان وجمعة ولحل المشكلات أو لتبليغ أغراض البحث كانت معلومة كمية أو كيفية. وأدوات البحث التي تستخدمها الباحثة هي: (1) المقابلة، (2) الملاحظة الميدانية، (3) الوثائق، (4) الاستبانة
4. طريقة جمع المعلومات
جمع المعلومات هو شيئ مهم في إجراء عملية البحث العلمي، ويجمع المعلومات يستطيع الباحث أن يحصله المعارف والمظاهر المهم صحيحا وعلميا، لكي يستطيع هذا البحث أن يحصله أي ينتاجه الباحث عملية ومسؤولية عن دقته ((Ainin, 2005: 107. وأما طريقة جمع المعلومات أقيمت الباحثة بالخطوات إلى ما يلي: (1) المقابلة و(2) الملاحظة و(3) الوثيقة و(4) الاستبانة (5) تحليل المعلومات
وتحليل المشكلات Menurut Patton (dalam Ainin, 2005)هو عملية تنظيم المعلومات وترتيبها في التصميمات والنوع وموحدة الشرح الأساسي لكي يوجد المضمون ويعبره الباحث فرض العمل كما حصلة تلك المعلومات. وجرى تحليل المعلومات في هذا البحث بالخطوات التالية: (1) تصنيف البيانات (2) تزكية البيانات (3) تلخيص البيانات.
قائمة المراجع
أحمد، محمد عبد القادر. 1979. طرق تعليم اللغة العربية. مكتبة النهضة المصرية.
إبراهيم، عبد العليم. 1971. الموجه الفنى لمدرسين اللغة العربية. القاهرة: دار المعارف.
الفوزان، عبد الرحمن بن إبراهيم، فضل، مختار الطاهر محمد، فضل محمد عبد الخالق محمد. 2003 . العربية بين يديك. الرياض: المملكة العربية السعودية.
الهاشمي، عابد توفيق. دون السنة. الموجه العملي لمدرسي اللغة العربية. مؤسسة الرسالة.
هارون، محمد يوسف. 1991. مشكلات تعليم اللغة العربية في المعاهد الإسلامية. مقالة مقدمة في الندوة عن اللغة العربية بمناسبة ذكرى 64 عاما لمعهد التربية الإسلامية كونتور بالتعاون مع معهد العلوم الإسلامية والعربية السعودية، 11 يونيو 1991.
هجرية. 2005. تعليم قواعد اللغة العربية دراسة في معهد فردوس للطلاب والطالبات مالانج. بحث العلم. غير منشور. جامعة مالانج الحكومية.
ورديمان.2003. تعليم اللغة العربية في المدارس الثانوية الإسلامية الحكومية بفماتنج سيانتار. رسالة الماجستير. مالانج: قسم الدراسات العليا الجامعة الإسلامية الإندونيسية. السودانية.
طعيمة، رشدي أحمد. 1986. المرجع في تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقين بلغات أخرى. جامعة أم القرى. الرياض: وحدة البحوث والمناهج.
Anshori, Ahmad Isa. 1995. Pembudayaan Bahasa Arab di Pondok Pesantren Nurul Haramain (PPNH) Desa Ngroto Kec. Pujon Kab. Malang: Telaah penumbuhan Bi’ah Arabiyah (Lingkungan Kearaban). Skripsi tidak diterbitkan. Malang: FPBS IKIP Malang.
Arikunto, Suharsimi. 2002. Prosedur Penelitian. Jakarta: PT Asdy Mahastya
Ary, Donald. 1982. Introduction to Research In Education. Terjemah oleh Furchan, Arief. 1982. Pengantar Penelitian dalam Pendidikan. Surabaya: Pustaka Progresif.
Direktorat Jenderal Kelembagaan Agama Islam. 2003. Kurikulum berbasis Kompetensi, Kurikulum dan Hasil Belajar Bahasa Arab Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Departemen Agama.
Effendy, Ahmad Fuad. 2004. Metodologi Pengajaran Bahasa Arab. Malang: Misykat.
Salamun, Muhammad. 2002. Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di Pondok Pesantren ( Studi kasus Pondok Pesantren Modern Al Barokah Ngepung Patinrowo Nganjuk). Tesis tidak dipublikasikan. Malang: Universitas Negeri Malang.
Lihat resource yang lain:
Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian
Definisi Penelitian
Jenis-jenis Penelitian
Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
Sampling Methods
Components of a Research Proposal
Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi
Sample Proposal (English)
Sample Proposal (Arabic)
Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan
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Sample of Arabic proposals collection from Qoniah Agustina includes a research proposal that accelerates writing of effective research proposals.
تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف
بجامعة مالانج المحمّديّة
تخطيط البحث
مقدم لاستيفاء الوظيفة النهائية في المادة الطريقة البحث
تحت إشراف الأستاذ الدكتور محمد عين
بقلم
قانعة أغوستتينا
104231472156
جامعة مالانج الحكومية
كلّيّة الآداب
قسم الأدب العربي
مايو، 2007 م
تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف
بجامعة مالانج المحمديّة
أ. دواعى البحث
اللغة وسيلة لاتصال الفرد بغيره، وعن طريق هذا الاتصال يدرك حاجته، ويحصل مآربه، كما أنها وسيلته في التعبير عن آلامه وآماله وعواطفه (إبراهيم،1971:43). اللغة العربية من إحدى اللغات الموجودة في هذا العالم وهي في تطورها لا يتعلمها العرب فقط، بل الآخرون يتعلمون أيضا ويفهمونها. وهذه يراد بها تعلّم العلوم الدينية والعمل بها (Anshori، 1995: 1). أن دور اللغة العربية المناسب بحاجات المجتمع الإندونيسي الذي أكثرهم المسلمون هو أنها لغة القرآن والحديث والكتب الإسلامية ولغة العبادات اليومية.
وقال الفوزان وحسين وفضل (2003:ب-ت) وفي هذا العصر اهتم كثير من العرب والمسلمين بتعلم اللغة العربية وتعليمها. وعناية المسلمين- في القديم والحديث- لها أسباب كثيرة أهمها:
(1) أن اللغة العربية من الدين كما قال ابن تيمية-رحمه الله-( معلوم أن تعلّم اللغة العربية وتعليمها فرض على الكفاية) (2) قوتها سبب لعزة الاسلام والمسلمين (3) اللغة العربية من أقوى الروابط بين المسلمين (4) تعليم اللغة العربية من أهم الوسائل لعرض الثقافة الاسلامية.
المعاهد الاسلامية هي من إحدى المؤسسات التربوية غير الرسمية التي قامت بتعليم اللغة العربية منذ زمن طويل. وزاد هارون (5:1991) فإن هذه المعاهد تضع نصب عينها في تعليم القواعد من النحو والصرف، والبلاغة والعروض. والهدف العام من تعليم اللغة العربية إكساب الطلاب قدرة على فهم القرآن الكريم والأحاديث النبوية وسائر الكتب الدينية العربية.
وفقا على اختلاف أنواع المعهد المنتشر في عالم إندونيسيا، فيكون تعليم اللغة العربية في المعاهد متنوعة أيضا. بعض المعاهد يهدف تعليم اللغة العربية فيه إلى تفهيم وتعميق الدين، والأخر يهدف إلى تنمية مهارة الدارسين اللغوية حتى يمتلكوا المعلومات والمهارات في استعمال اللغة. بعبارة أخرى أن الهدف من تعليم اللغة العربية ليس أخرى سوى لمجال الدين، لكي تكون العلوم الدينية التي تصدر من الكتب العربية مدروسة ومفهومة.
وفي معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف يستعمل المدرسون الطرق التي تناسب بالطلاب. وللمدرسين أهداف منها: لتعليم شريعة الاسلام ولحرس عقيدة الاسلام.
بحثت الباحثة لوصف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف من النواحي الآتية: (1) منهج التعليم، (2) مواد التعليم، (3) وسائل التعليم، (4) تقويم التعليم.
ب. مشكلات التعليم
من خلفية البحث تستطيع الباحثة أن تأخذ المشكلة العامة " كيف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟"
والمشكلات الخاصة، هي:
1. كيف منهج التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
2. كيف مواد التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
3. كيف وسائل التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
4. كيف تقويم التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
ج. أهداف البحث
هدف البحث العام في هذا البحث " لوصف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف"
أما أهداف البحث الخاصة فهي:
1. لوصف منهج التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
2. لوصف مواد التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
3. لوصف وسائل التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
4. لوصف تقويم التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟
د. منافع البحث
هذا البحث له منافع كثيرة فهي كما يلي:
1. للكاتبة، لمعرفة تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف ولتنمية مهارتها في اللغة العربية
2. لمدرّسي اللغة العربية، لمساعدتهم في تعليم اللغة العربية
3. لمتعلمي اللغة العربية، لمساعدتهم في فهم تعليم اللغة العربية ولتنمية مهارتهم في اللغة العربية
هـ. تحديد البحث
نظرا إلى أهداف البحث السابق فتحديد البحث هي:
بحث تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف من ناحية منهج التعليم ومواد التعليم ووسائل التعليم وتقويم التعليم.
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و. البحث النظري
هذا الباب يشمل المعلومات والنظرية عن تعليم اللغة العربية لدى الطلاب في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف
1. تعريف تعليم اللغة العربية
تعليم اللغة العربية: عملية التعليم لترشد الدارس ولتنمية كفاءة لغتهم العربية سلبيا كان أو إيجابيا(: Depag 1994 ). والمراد هنا إجراء تدريس اللغة العربية نفسها وليس التدريس عن الكتب المدروسة والمكتوبة باللغة العربية عامة مثل الفقه والتفسير والحديث والأخلاق.
2. تعريف المعهد
المعهد: مؤسّسة تربوية (تقليدية وعصرية) يتعلم فيه الطلاب العلوم الإسلامية ويفضّل أهمية الأخلاق الإسلامية (Salamun، 13: 2002)
3. تعريف المنهج
المنهج: خطة العمل وهو يجري في الميدان المدرسي يشمل أنواع الخبرات والدراسات التي توصلها المدرسة إلى التلاميذ. المنهج الدراسي هو نوع من التشريع يقصد به تنظيم العملية التعليمية (إبراهيم: 35: 1968).
أن المنهج الدراسي هو خطة لطريق واضح ينبغي أنيسالكه التربويون لتحقيق أهدافهم (طعيمة: 122: 1986). وزاد أنشار ( 1989:18) أن المنهج الدراسي يشمل جميع الخبرات التعليمية في المدرسة، وهو يتكون من المنهج والتخطيط والمواد والخبرات التعليمية.
4. تعريف المواد
المواد: ما يستخدمه المعلم ليملكه الطلبة ( أبو أحمدي، وفي ورديمان، 19:2003). وبتعريف أخر هي المعلومات التي يقصد بها المعلم أن يوصلها إلى التلاميذ. والمواد التعليمية تحمل الطلاب إلى الهدف التعليمي المناسب بمنهج التعليم المستخدم. المواد هي جميع المعلومات والمعارف التي أوصلها المدري إلى أذهان التلاميذ.
5. تعريف الوسائل
الوسائل التعليمية: مايزيد عملية التعليم سهلا ويزيد الدرس وضوحا للدارس. تشمل الوسائل غالبا مواد تعليم من كتب ومجلات وغيرها من مصادر معلومات مطبعات، وتشمل معينات تعليم. وما ذلك إلا يدل على أن الوسائل أكبر شمولا من العينات. كما عربه صيني والقاسمي (1984:3) في كتابهما أن الوسائل التعليمية يقصد بها عادة المعينات السمعية أو البصرية التي يستخدمها المعلم في تدريس مادته ليبلغ الهدف المقصود بأفضل صورة ممكنة ويصبغ على العملية التربوية شيئا من الاثارة والمتعة.
6. تعريف التقويم
التقويم: تعيين القيمة أو منفعة الشيئ. يحتوي التقويم حصول الاختبار لتستعمل في نظر المنفعة أو القيمة أو البرنامج أو المنتاج أو الاجراءات أو الهدف أو الفائدة المحتملة من تقريبات الاختيار المخططة لنيل الأهداف المقررة (ورطين وسانديرس، 1973: 19) في رسالة الماجستيرية:37) يعتبر التقويم عملية بسيطة تعطي أو تحدد قيمة لعدد الأهداف والأنشطة والقضايا والأعمال والإنسان (دفيس، 3:1981). وقدم واند وبرون أن التقويم يعتبر عملية لتعيين القيمة من الشيء ( يوسف وأنوار 1997: 209).
{mospagebreak}
هـ. طريقة البحث
1. منهج البحث
منهج البحث هو استيراتيجية أو كيفية عامة يستخدم الباحث لجمع المعلومات وتحليلها وتفيدها لحل المشكلات. (Ary, dkk, tanpa tahun: 50) . وأما منهج البحث البحث المستتخدم للباحثة هو منهج البحث الوصفي: وصف المعلومات، وجمعها، وتصنيفها، وتنظيمها (كميا أو كيفيا)
2. المعلومات ومصادرها
إن معلومات البحث هي نتيجة ملاحظة البحث كانت الواقع أو الرقم (Arikunto, 2002: 96). واعتمادا على مشكلات البحث وأهدافه السابق على أى المعلومات في هذا البحث هي تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف بالنظر إلى ناحية المنهج و المواد والوسائل والتقويم.
وأما مصادر المعلومات فهي المقابلة و الملاحظة و الوثيقة والاستبانة.
3. أدوات البحث
أدوات البحث هي شيء مهم في البحث لأنها متعلق بالمعلومات أو الظاهر الواقع الميداني إما معلومات كمية أو كيفية بدقة ودقيق على المعلومات المجموعة، ولنيل تلك المعلومات يحتاج إلى أدوات البحث.(Ainin, 2005: 107) وإضافة إلى ذلك أن أدوات البحث هو آلة مستخدمة في نيل البيان وجمعة ولحل المشكلات أو لتبليغ أغراض البحث كانت معلومة كمية أو كيفية. وأدوات البحث التي تستخدمها الباحثة هي: (1) المقابلة، (2) الملاحظة الميدانية، (3) الوثائق، (4) الاستبانة
4. طريقة جمع المعلومات
جمع المعلومات هو شيئ مهم في إجراء عملية البحث العلمي، ويجمع المعلومات يستطيع الباحث أن يحصله المعارف والمظاهر المهم صحيحا وعلميا، لكي يستطيع هذا البحث أن يحصله أي ينتاجه الباحث عملية ومسؤولية عن دقته ((Ainin, 2005: 107. وأما طريقة جمع المعلومات أقيمت الباحثة بالخطوات إلى ما يلي: (1) المقابلة و(2) الملاحظة و(3) الوثيقة و(4) الاستبانة (5) تحليل المعلومات
وتحليل المشكلات Menurut Patton (dalam Ainin, 2005)هو عملية تنظيم المعلومات وترتيبها في التصميمات والنوع وموحدة الشرح الأساسي لكي يوجد المضمون ويعبره الباحث فرض العمل كما حصلة تلك المعلومات. وجرى تحليل المعلومات في هذا البحث بالخطوات التالية: (1) تصنيف البيانات (2) تزكية البيانات (3) تلخيص البيانات.
قائمة المراجع
أحمد، محمد عبد القادر. 1979. طرق تعليم اللغة العربية. مكتبة النهضة المصرية.
إبراهيم، عبد العليم. 1971. الموجه الفنى لمدرسين اللغة العربية. القاهرة: دار المعارف.
الفوزان، عبد الرحمن بن إبراهيم، فضل، مختار الطاهر محمد، فضل محمد عبد الخالق محمد. 2003 . العربية بين يديك. الرياض: المملكة العربية السعودية.
الهاشمي، عابد توفيق. دون السنة. الموجه العملي لمدرسي اللغة العربية. مؤسسة الرسالة.
هارون، محمد يوسف. 1991. مشكلات تعليم اللغة العربية في المعاهد الإسلامية. مقالة مقدمة في الندوة عن اللغة العربية بمناسبة ذكرى 64 عاما لمعهد التربية الإسلامية كونتور بالتعاون مع معهد العلوم الإسلامية والعربية السعودية، 11 يونيو 1991.
هجرية. 2005. تعليم قواعد اللغة العربية دراسة في معهد فردوس للطلاب والطالبات مالانج. بحث العلم. غير منشور. جامعة مالانج الحكومية.
ورديمان.2003. تعليم اللغة العربية في المدارس الثانوية الإسلامية الحكومية بفماتنج سيانتار. رسالة الماجستير. مالانج: قسم الدراسات العليا الجامعة الإسلامية الإندونيسية. السودانية.
طعيمة، رشدي أحمد. 1986. المرجع في تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقين بلغات أخرى. جامعة أم القرى. الرياض: وحدة البحوث والمناهج.
Anshori, Ahmad Isa. 1995. Pembudayaan Bahasa Arab di Pondok Pesantren Nurul Haramain (PPNH) Desa Ngroto Kec. Pujon Kab. Malang: Telaah penumbuhan Bi’ah Arabiyah (Lingkungan Kearaban). Skripsi tidak diterbitkan. Malang: FPBS IKIP Malang.
Arikunto, Suharsimi. 2002. Prosedur Penelitian. Jakarta: PT Asdy Mahastya
Ary, Donald. 1982. Introduction to Research In Education. Terjemah oleh Furchan, Arief. 1982. Pengantar Penelitian dalam Pendidikan. Surabaya: Pustaka Progresif.
Direktorat Jenderal Kelembagaan Agama Islam. 2003. Kurikulum berbasis Kompetensi, Kurikulum dan Hasil Belajar Bahasa Arab Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Departemen Agama.
Effendy, Ahmad Fuad. 2004. Metodologi Pengajaran Bahasa Arab. Malang: Misykat.
Salamun, Muhammad. 2002. Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di Pondok Pesantren ( Studi kasus Pondok Pesantren Modern Al Barokah Ngepung Patinrowo Nganjuk). Tesis tidak dipublikasikan. Malang: Universitas Negeri Malang.
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Components of a Research Proposal
Components of a Research Proposal
I. Statement of the Problem
The problem statement is the guiding theme of the proposal. This section should include a statement of the purpose of the study and should specify its objectives.
Purpose of the Study. This section should explain why the research is being conducted. It should establish the importance of the problem addressed by the research and explain why the research is needed. For example, it might establish the seriousness of juvenile antisocial behavior nationally and describe the gaps that exist in the knowledge about this behavior. It might also explain why the specific knowledge gap chosen is of particular importance.
Objectives. This section should describe what the investigator hopes to accomplish with the research. After reading this section, the reader should be clear about the questions to be asked, the kinds of answers expected, and the nature of the information to be provided by the proposed research. For example, one might propose to test a drug abuse treatment approach to determine the intervention characteristics that contribute differentially to the success of adolescent boys and girls who participate in the program. Expected outcomes might also include the provision of descriptive information not currently available. An example of this might be a comparison of arrest rates for participants in the years prior to and following participation in the program.
II. Review of the Literature
This section will review published research related to the purpose and objectives described above. It should be noted that references may be found throughout the proposal, but it is preferable for most of the literature review to be reported in this section.
A review of the literature should also relate to the hypotheses, definition and operationalization of variables, methodology and data analysis that follow. It should summarize the results of previous studies that have reported relationships among the variables included in the proposed research.
An important function of the literature review is to provide a theoretical explanation of the relationships among the variables of interest. It is most important that the review explain what mechanisms link the variables. The review can also provide descriptive information about related problems, intervention programs and target populations.
The literature review must address three areas:
Topic or problem area: This part of the literature review covers material directly related to the problem being studied. There will usually be at least two substantive areas reviewed because most research involves variables that have been studied in separate substantive areas. For example, a study on some aspect of juvenile antisocial behavior suggests a review of the literatures on anti-social behavior, adolescent development and families at risk. As another example, research on the differential impact on males and females of intervention characteristics in a substance abuse program would require a review of the literature on substance abuse programs, the specific intervention characteristics in question, and pertinent research on gender differences. As another example, research on conceptualizations of work in high stress settings would suggest a review of literature on the stress factors in such settings, the concept of stress and the development of job-related attitudes.
Theory area: Investigators must identify the social science theory which relates to the problem area. Examples of such theories might be sex-role theory, theories of deviance, organizational theory, small group theory, family systems theory, or conflict theory. The theory area provides the theoretical "lens" through which the writer chooses to view and understand the problem. It provides guidelines for explaining the etiology of problems and the linking mechanisms that connect variables.
Methodology: Investigators must review the literature which is appropriate to various aspects of their chosen method, including design, selection of subjects, and methods of data collection. This section describes research methods and measurement approaches used in previous investigations in the area. This content should be considered in designing the proposed research and used to support the choice of design and measurement techniques. Otherwise, the investigator must explain why s/he has chosen methods or approaches that have not been used previously.
After reading the literature review, the reader should understand the problem area you have selected and the theoretical models, findings, methodologies, and measurement techniques that have been used in previous, related research efforts. The literature review should lead up to specific hypotheses, which are then listed at the end of the literature review.
III. Methodology
Subjects. Subjects can be individuals, families, groups, organizations, states, or countries, depending on the unit of analysis. This section will describe how the sample in the study will be selected. For example, will volunteers be solicited? Will every subject who volunteers be included? If not, what criteria will be used to choose those to be included? Will there be a comparison group? How will the subjects in that group be chosen? In addition to describing how subjects will be chosen, this section should provide a rationale for the selection approach taken. This rationale usually includes external validity requirements (i.e., the conditions necessary to generalize the findings to a particular target population). After reading this section, the reader should have a clear understanding of how subjects will be selected for the proposed research and of why they will be selected in that particular manner. The reader should also have a clear idea of the characteristics of the intended subjects, including age, sex, ethnicity, education, SES, and other related variables.
Design, This section will describe the type of research design to be used. Will it be an idiographic, survey, quasi-experimental or experimental design? Will it be cross-sectional or longitudinal? Will it be a retrospective or a prospective design? The design should also describe the sequence of events that will occur in conducting the research. This would include how the subjects will be divided up, what the subjects are expected to experience during the research, and when and how often they will be observed or asked for information. After reading this section, the reader should have a clear understanding of the overall design of the study.
Data Collection. This section will operationalize the variables to be included in the proposed evaluation. It is helpful to divide the variables into dependent variables, independent variables, and covariates. Dependent variables are outcomes (e.g., drug abuse, self-esteem, depression) which are affected directly by other variables. They might also include variables which are affected indirectly (e.g., arrest rates, recidivism, employment record). Independent variables can include intervention approaches, program characteristics, and subject characteristics believed to affect the dependent variables. Covariates are additional independent variables included in the research solely for the purpose of controlling for differences that might exist among subjects. These differences are controlled statistically so that they will not confound conclusions that are drawn about relationships between independent variables and dependent variables.
A description of how each variable will be measured should be included in this section. Ideally, one should measure each variable two different ways so that some estimate of measurement validity can be made. After reading this section, the reader will know the specific variables that will be included in the proposed study and, most important. how they will be measured.
IV. Data Analysis
This section will explain how the data will be analyzed once they are collected. Usually, more than one analysis is conducted. Each analysis that will be used to meet each objective listed above should be described. Also a description of the specific effects to be examined in each analysis, such as main effects, interaction effects. or simple main effects, should be included.
The unit of analysis to be used should be specified and the reason for choosing that unit should be explained. After reading this section, the reader should know which effects will guide the data analysis and in exactly what way the data are to be analyzed to meet each objective of the proposed study.
Data analyses should be specifically linked to the hypotheses so that it is clear how each hypothesis will be tested.
V. Bibliography
The bibliography should include full reference documentation for all articles and texts mentioned in the proposal. It is important that the investigator fully review relevant previous work in developing the proposal.
VI. Timetable
This section will describe the sequence of activities necessary to conduct the research. It will include the time necessary to complete each activity. After reading this section, the reader will have a clear understanding of what steps will be taken, the order in which they will occur, and the time each step will require.
Sumber: www.wisc.edu
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(Jurnal)
I. Statement of the Problem
The problem statement is the guiding theme of the proposal. This section should include a statement of the purpose of the study and should specify its objectives.
Purpose of the Study. This section should explain why the research is being conducted. It should establish the importance of the problem addressed by the research and explain why the research is needed. For example, it might establish the seriousness of juvenile antisocial behavior nationally and describe the gaps that exist in the knowledge about this behavior. It might also explain why the specific knowledge gap chosen is of particular importance.
Objectives. This section should describe what the investigator hopes to accomplish with the research. After reading this section, the reader should be clear about the questions to be asked, the kinds of answers expected, and the nature of the information to be provided by the proposed research. For example, one might propose to test a drug abuse treatment approach to determine the intervention characteristics that contribute differentially to the success of adolescent boys and girls who participate in the program. Expected outcomes might also include the provision of descriptive information not currently available. An example of this might be a comparison of arrest rates for participants in the years prior to and following participation in the program.
II. Review of the Literature
This section will review published research related to the purpose and objectives described above. It should be noted that references may be found throughout the proposal, but it is preferable for most of the literature review to be reported in this section.
A review of the literature should also relate to the hypotheses, definition and operationalization of variables, methodology and data analysis that follow. It should summarize the results of previous studies that have reported relationships among the variables included in the proposed research.
An important function of the literature review is to provide a theoretical explanation of the relationships among the variables of interest. It is most important that the review explain what mechanisms link the variables. The review can also provide descriptive information about related problems, intervention programs and target populations.
The literature review must address three areas:
Topic or problem area: This part of the literature review covers material directly related to the problem being studied. There will usually be at least two substantive areas reviewed because most research involves variables that have been studied in separate substantive areas. For example, a study on some aspect of juvenile antisocial behavior suggests a review of the literatures on anti-social behavior, adolescent development and families at risk. As another example, research on the differential impact on males and females of intervention characteristics in a substance abuse program would require a review of the literature on substance abuse programs, the specific intervention characteristics in question, and pertinent research on gender differences. As another example, research on conceptualizations of work in high stress settings would suggest a review of literature on the stress factors in such settings, the concept of stress and the development of job-related attitudes.
Theory area: Investigators must identify the social science theory which relates to the problem area. Examples of such theories might be sex-role theory, theories of deviance, organizational theory, small group theory, family systems theory, or conflict theory. The theory area provides the theoretical "lens" through which the writer chooses to view and understand the problem. It provides guidelines for explaining the etiology of problems and the linking mechanisms that connect variables.
Methodology: Investigators must review the literature which is appropriate to various aspects of their chosen method, including design, selection of subjects, and methods of data collection. This section describes research methods and measurement approaches used in previous investigations in the area. This content should be considered in designing the proposed research and used to support the choice of design and measurement techniques. Otherwise, the investigator must explain why s/he has chosen methods or approaches that have not been used previously.
After reading the literature review, the reader should understand the problem area you have selected and the theoretical models, findings, methodologies, and measurement techniques that have been used in previous, related research efforts. The literature review should lead up to specific hypotheses, which are then listed at the end of the literature review.
III. Methodology
Subjects. Subjects can be individuals, families, groups, organizations, states, or countries, depending on the unit of analysis. This section will describe how the sample in the study will be selected. For example, will volunteers be solicited? Will every subject who volunteers be included? If not, what criteria will be used to choose those to be included? Will there be a comparison group? How will the subjects in that group be chosen? In addition to describing how subjects will be chosen, this section should provide a rationale for the selection approach taken. This rationale usually includes external validity requirements (i.e., the conditions necessary to generalize the findings to a particular target population). After reading this section, the reader should have a clear understanding of how subjects will be selected for the proposed research and of why they will be selected in that particular manner. The reader should also have a clear idea of the characteristics of the intended subjects, including age, sex, ethnicity, education, SES, and other related variables.
Design, This section will describe the type of research design to be used. Will it be an idiographic, survey, quasi-experimental or experimental design? Will it be cross-sectional or longitudinal? Will it be a retrospective or a prospective design? The design should also describe the sequence of events that will occur in conducting the research. This would include how the subjects will be divided up, what the subjects are expected to experience during the research, and when and how often they will be observed or asked for information. After reading this section, the reader should have a clear understanding of the overall design of the study.
Data Collection. This section will operationalize the variables to be included in the proposed evaluation. It is helpful to divide the variables into dependent variables, independent variables, and covariates. Dependent variables are outcomes (e.g., drug abuse, self-esteem, depression) which are affected directly by other variables. They might also include variables which are affected indirectly (e.g., arrest rates, recidivism, employment record). Independent variables can include intervention approaches, program characteristics, and subject characteristics believed to affect the dependent variables. Covariates are additional independent variables included in the research solely for the purpose of controlling for differences that might exist among subjects. These differences are controlled statistically so that they will not confound conclusions that are drawn about relationships between independent variables and dependent variables.
A description of how each variable will be measured should be included in this section. Ideally, one should measure each variable two different ways so that some estimate of measurement validity can be made. After reading this section, the reader will know the specific variables that will be included in the proposed study and, most important. how they will be measured.
IV. Data Analysis
This section will explain how the data will be analyzed once they are collected. Usually, more than one analysis is conducted. Each analysis that will be used to meet each objective listed above should be described. Also a description of the specific effects to be examined in each analysis, such as main effects, interaction effects. or simple main effects, should be included.
The unit of analysis to be used should be specified and the reason for choosing that unit should be explained. After reading this section, the reader should know which effects will guide the data analysis and in exactly what way the data are to be analyzed to meet each objective of the proposed study.
Data analyses should be specifically linked to the hypotheses so that it is clear how each hypothesis will be tested.
V. Bibliography
The bibliography should include full reference documentation for all articles and texts mentioned in the proposal. It is important that the investigator fully review relevant previous work in developing the proposal.
VI. Timetable
This section will describe the sequence of activities necessary to conduct the research. It will include the time necessary to complete each activity. After reading this section, the reader will have a clear understanding of what steps will be taken, the order in which they will occur, and the time each step will require.
Sumber: www.wisc.edu
Lihat resource yang lain:
Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian
Definisi Penelitian
Jenis-jenis Penelitian
Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
Sampling Methods
Components of a Research Proposal
Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi
Sample Proposal (English)
Sample Proposal (Arabic)
Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan
Latest Articles
Types of Documents
Mining Data from Documents
Stemberg's Triarchic Model of Intelligence
Critical Thinking: A Definition
Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research
Lomba 17an di Pustakaku.net
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Contoh Jabaran Variabel Penelitian, Sub Variabel dan Indikator Penelitian (7234)
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Tutorial_Classroom Action Research (1354)
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Pendekatan Konstruktivis untuk Pengajaran Reading Bahasa Inggris (1313)
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Perbedaan Individual dalam Proses Pembelajaran di Sekolah Dasar (1254)
(Jurnal)
Research: Sampling Methods
Research: Sampling Methods
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.
Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.
Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.
Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.
Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.
Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.
Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.
Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.
(http://www.statpac.com/surveys/sampling.htm)
Lihat resource yang lain:
Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian
Definisi Penelitian
Jenis-jenis Penelitian
Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
Sampling Methods
Components of a Research Proposal
Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi
Sample Proposal (English)
Sample Proposal (Arabic)
Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan
Latest Articles
Types of Documents
Mining Data from Documents
Stemberg's Triarchic Model of Intelligence
Critical Thinking: A Definition
Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research
Lomba 17an di Pustakaku.net
Latest Download
Contoh Jabaran Variabel Penelitian, Sub Variabel dan Indikator Penelitian (7234)
(Ebook)
Thesis: Action Research Tutorial (3126)
(Ebook)
Strategi Belajar Kooperatif dalam Belajar Mengajar Kontektual (3002)
(Jurnal)
Tutorial_Classroom Action Research (1354)
(Ebook)
Pendekatan Konstruktivis untuk Pengajaran Reading Bahasa Inggris (1313)
(Jurnal)
Perbedaan Individual dalam Proses Pembelajaran di Sekolah Dasar (1254)
(Jurnal)
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.
Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.
Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.
Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.
Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.
Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.
Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.
Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.
(http://www.statpac.com/surveys/sampling.htm)
Lihat resource yang lain:
Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian
Definisi Penelitian
Jenis-jenis Penelitian
Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
Sampling Methods
Components of a Research Proposal
Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi
Sample Proposal (English)
Sample Proposal (Arabic)
Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan
Latest Articles
Types of Documents
Mining Data from Documents
Stemberg's Triarchic Model of Intelligence
Critical Thinking: A Definition
Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research
Lomba 17an di Pustakaku.net
Latest Download
Contoh Jabaran Variabel Penelitian, Sub Variabel dan Indikator Penelitian (7234)
(Ebook)
Thesis: Action Research Tutorial (3126)
(Ebook)
Strategi Belajar Kooperatif dalam Belajar Mengajar Kontektual (3002)
(Jurnal)
Tutorial_Classroom Action Research (1354)
(Ebook)
Pendekatan Konstruktivis untuk Pengajaran Reading Bahasa Inggris (1313)
(Jurnal)
Perbedaan Individual dalam Proses Pembelajaran di Sekolah Dasar (1254)
(Jurnal)
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
The following section was authored by Barbara Hall and is intended to provide general, simplified information about how to conduct and write up the results of ethnographic research. The information that follows falls into three general areas: guidance through the steps necessary to plan and conduct an interesting and appropriate ethnographic term project, even in a class that does not devote much or any time to teaching ethnographic methodology, help in making sense of what is learned through the research, both with regards to the fieldsite in question and to anthropological theory, and assistance in rendering the both research process and what was learned through it accessible to readers through established conventions for writing ethnographic research papers.
The pages below are arranged in a loose order which can take you step-by-step through the research and writing process involved in ethnography. Novice ethnographers are encouraged to read through the following in its entirety before beginning a project.
Objectivity, Ethnographic Insight and Ethnographic Authority
Students learning about ethnography for the first time are often tempted to promise fervently to be "objective" in their research and to learn what is "really" happening in the field. However, anthropologists have long since acknowledged that ethnographic research is not objective research at all. The following are some of the reasons for this conclusion:
Ethnography is an interpretive endeavor undertaken by human beings with multiple and varied commitments which can and do affect how the research is done and reported. We all have backgrounds, biographies, and identities which affect what questions we ask and what we learn in the field, how our informants let us in to their lives, and how our own interpretive lenses work.
Not all fieldsites are "foreign" for ethnographers in the same way. Some ethnographers are native to the communities in which they study, whereas some enter as complete strangers with no obvious common ground. Even though they may learn somewhat different things, both kinds of researchers are legitimately able to undertake ethnographic research.
Ethnography is not replicable research (like many kinds of science).
Ethnography is not based on large numbers of cases (like quantitative research).
How can any research done under such circumstances, which is not even pretending to be objective, have any worth at all? In other words, how can we claim ethnographic insight into cultural practices? What is the basis of ethnographic authority under these conditions? Anthropologists have seriously considered these charges, and concluded that there are several ways in which insight and authority in ethnographic research can be persuasively claimed:
Anthropologists generally subscribe to some form of cultural relativism, meaning that we believe that there is no one standpoint from which to judge all cultures and ways of being in the world. Because of this, we are conditioned to see various perspectives as "positioned" (Abu-Lughod 1991), and the things that we learn in the field as "partial truths" (Clifford 1986). Therefore, there is not one single truth in a research situation to be uncovered; there are many.
Ethnographers are expected to be "reflexive" in their work, which means that we should provide our readers with a brief, clear picture of how the research we have done has been or could have been affected by what we bring to it. This can take the form of revealing details of our own experience or background to readers up front.
Ethnographers should have more than one way to show how we arrived at the conclusions of our research; we expect to have a collection of fieldnotes, interviews, and site documents (where possible) which work together to support our claims. This is called triangulation.
Ethnographic research takes place in depth and over a great deal of time, often months or years for professional ethnographers. Ethnographic conclusions are, therefore, arrived at only after lengthy consideration.
Sanjek (1990) recommends that readers and writers of ethnography focus on what he calls the "validity" of ethnography. In this way, we can judge the clarity with which decisions regarding the application of theory to data are explained as well as follow ways in which events in the text are persuasively linked in making the conclusions presented there.
Guiding Questions
One of the first things we need early on in order to conduct a successful ethnographic project is an appropriate guiding question. Having a guiding question before beginning fieldwork is a good idea because it gives you some way to focus your attention productively in early visits to your fieldsite. Of course, this question might change in the course of the research as more is learned; this happens often and can be a step towards especially insightful research!
Guiding questions are aimed at the basic point of ethnography: gaining the world view of a group of people. Common formats for guiding questions might be:
How do members of a particular group perceive of or understand a certain social or cultural phenomenon? (This is often seen through behavior of some kind.)
Example: How do sexually active high school students in rural American conveive of and negotiate the use of birth control?
How is a certain social or cultural practice socially constructed among members of a certain group?
Example: How is arranged marriage socially constructed among matchmakers in contemporary Japan?
Modern ethnographies focus on a central guiding question that connects the local fieldsite to larger anthropological questions about how culture works. Guiding questions should encode larger questions regarding culture or social practice within them. Since everyone is cultural, the ways of life of all groups - familiar, unfamiliar, rich, poor, popular, unpopular - are potential ethnographic topics. While many ethnographies have focused on the poorest or most disenfranchised populations in societies, students are encouraged to "study up" as well. This refers to studying powerful groups and institutions. How and why do these groups gain, maintain, and exercise power? Note that since groups of people are not homogenous or static, it is often most effective to study a social process at work over time.
In choosing a guiding question, be sure first that it is answerable through ethnographic research. It may be helpful to review the description of ethnography provided in this site to make sure that your question is appropriate. Remember that quantitative research, public policy research, and journalism may seem similar but are importantly distinct from ethnography; examples of the kinds of questions these consider are included there. It is also a good idea to show the guiding question to the professor for help in deciding whether or not it is appropriately anthropological and able to be addressed by ethnographic means.
Fieldsites
Traditionally, anthropologists have undertaken ethnographic research in small, bounded villages while living among the village's relatively few inhabitants. These ethnographers may have been one of few non-natives in that part of the world and may have been one of the first non-natives that the villagers had ever seen. It may have taken these researchers a year or more in the field to gain the language skills necessary for communication before becoming able to fashion appropriate guiding questions. These long stretches away from their homelands may have been very stressful.
Today, however, fieldsites can be nearly anywhere. Research may still focus on village life, but it is also increasingly likely to take place in urban locales or in the native language of the ethnographer. Sometimes the "group" among whom one wants to study does not live in one location, and our main fieldsite will be a workplace (like a bank) or a religious center (like a mosque) or a generic meeting room where some group meets regularly (like a library meeting room where Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, but also other things also take place) or even in cyberspace (like a chat room). "Multi-sited" fieldwork, which allows ethnographers to engage in research in more than one locale for comparative purposes, is also possible.
It is possible to choose a fieldsite first and then to make a guiding question appropriate to the site. It is also possible to start with a question about a certain cultural process and to find a site where that question might be appropriate. Either method for setting up a project can work, as long as the site and the question are relevant to one another. In other words, be careful that your research questions hit on something important about social and cultural life and practices in the group you have chosen.
Once a potential fieldsite has been selected, ethnographers must negotiate entry. This involves getting permission to visit the site for research purposes from members and often from a person in authority in the site or groups as well. If this proves difficult or questions arise about how to best approach a group, students should consult their professors for advice or assistance. Sometimes it is possible for a professor to help a student gain entry by providing official assurances regarding the project and its purposes to complement that which students provide.
for more details, click search.
reference: www.sas.upenn.edu
Lihat resource yang lain:
Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian
Definisi Penelitian
Jenis-jenis Penelitian
Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet
How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide
Sampling Methods
Components of a Research Proposal
Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi
Sample Proposal (English)
Sample Proposal (Arabic)
Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif
Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka
Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan
Latest Articles
Types of Documents
Mining Data from Documents
Stemberg's Triarchic Model of Intelligence
Critical Thinking: A Definition
Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research
Lomba 17an di Pustakaku.net
Latest Download
Contoh Jabaran Variabel Penelitian, Sub Variabel dan Indikator Penelitian (7234)
(Ebook)
Thesis: Action Research Tutorial (3126)
(Ebook)
Strategi Belajar Kooperatif dalam Belajar Mengajar Kontektual (3002)
(Jurnal)
Tutorial_Classroom Action Research (1354)
(Ebook)
Pendekatan Konstruktivis untuk Pengajaran Reading Bahasa Inggris (1313)
(Jurnal)
Perbedaan Individual dalam Proses Pembelajaran di Sekolah Dasar (1254)
(Jurnal)
The following section was authored by Barbara Hall and is intended to provide general, simplified information about how to conduct and write up the results of ethnographic research. The information that follows falls into three general areas: guidance through the steps necessary to plan and conduct an interesting and appropriate ethnographic term project, even in a class that does not devote much or any time to teaching ethnographic methodology, help in making sense of what is learned through the research, both with regards to the fieldsite in question and to anthropological theory, and assistance in rendering the both research process and what was learned through it accessible to readers through established conventions for writing ethnographic research papers.
The pages below are arranged in a loose order which can take you step-by-step through the research and writing process involved in ethnography. Novice ethnographers are encouraged to read through the following in its entirety before beginning a project.
Objectivity, Ethnographic Insight and Ethnographic Authority
Students learning about ethnography for the first time are often tempted to promise fervently to be "objective" in their research and to learn what is "really" happening in the field. However, anthropologists have long since acknowledged that ethnographic research is not objective research at all. The following are some of the reasons for this conclusion:
Ethnography is an interpretive endeavor undertaken by human beings with multiple and varied commitments which can and do affect how the research is done and reported. We all have backgrounds, biographies, and identities which affect what questions we ask and what we learn in the field, how our informants let us in to their lives, and how our own interpretive lenses work.
Not all fieldsites are "foreign" for ethnographers in the same way. Some ethnographers are native to the communities in which they study, whereas some enter as complete strangers with no obvious common ground. Even though they may learn somewhat different things, both kinds of researchers are legitimately able to undertake ethnographic research.
Ethnography is not replicable research (like many kinds of science).
Ethnography is not based on large numbers of cases (like quantitative research).
How can any research done under such circumstances, which is not even pretending to be objective, have any worth at all? In other words, how can we claim ethnographic insight into cultural practices? What is the basis of ethnographic authority under these conditions? Anthropologists have seriously considered these charges, and concluded that there are several ways in which insight and authority in ethnographic research can be persuasively claimed:
Anthropologists generally subscribe to some form of cultural relativism, meaning that we believe that there is no one standpoint from which to judge all cultures and ways of being in the world. Because of this, we are conditioned to see various perspectives as "positioned" (Abu-Lughod 1991), and the things that we learn in the field as "partial truths" (Clifford 1986). Therefore, there is not one single truth in a research situation to be uncovered; there are many.
Ethnographers are expected to be "reflexive" in their work, which means that we should provide our readers with a brief, clear picture of how the research we have done has been or could have been affected by what we bring to it. This can take the form of revealing details of our own experience or background to readers up front.
Ethnographers should have more than one way to show how we arrived at the conclusions of our research; we expect to have a collection of fieldnotes, interviews, and site documents (where possible) which work together to support our claims. This is called triangulation.
Ethnographic research takes place in depth and over a great deal of time, often months or years for professional ethnographers. Ethnographic conclusions are, therefore, arrived at only after lengthy consideration.
Sanjek (1990) recommends that readers and writers of ethnography focus on what he calls the "validity" of ethnography. In this way, we can judge the clarity with which decisions regarding the application of theory to data are explained as well as follow ways in which events in the text are persuasively linked in making the conclusions presented there.
Guiding Questions
One of the first things we need early on in order to conduct a successful ethnographic project is an appropriate guiding question. Having a guiding question before beginning fieldwork is a good idea because it gives you some way to focus your attention productively in early visits to your fieldsite. Of course, this question might change in the course of the research as more is learned; this happens often and can be a step towards especially insightful research!
Guiding questions are aimed at the basic point of ethnography: gaining the world view of a group of people. Common formats for guiding questions might be:
How do members of a particular group perceive of or understand a certain social or cultural phenomenon? (This is often seen through behavior of some kind.)
Example: How do sexually active high school students in rural American conveive of and negotiate the use of birth control?
How is a certain social or cultural practice socially constructed among members of a certain group?
Example: How is arranged marriage socially constructed among matchmakers in contemporary Japan?
Modern ethnographies focus on a central guiding question that connects the local fieldsite to larger anthropological questions about how culture works. Guiding questions should encode larger questions regarding culture or social practice within them. Since everyone is cultural, the ways of life of all groups - familiar, unfamiliar, rich, poor, popular, unpopular - are potential ethnographic topics. While many ethnographies have focused on the poorest or most disenfranchised populations in societies, students are encouraged to "study up" as well. This refers to studying powerful groups and institutions. How and why do these groups gain, maintain, and exercise power? Note that since groups of people are not homogenous or static, it is often most effective to study a social process at work over time.
In choosing a guiding question, be sure first that it is answerable through ethnographic research. It may be helpful to review the description of ethnography provided in this site to make sure that your question is appropriate. Remember that quantitative research, public policy research, and journalism may seem similar but are importantly distinct from ethnography; examples of the kinds of questions these consider are included there. It is also a good idea to show the guiding question to the professor for help in deciding whether or not it is appropriately anthropological and able to be addressed by ethnographic means.
Fieldsites
Traditionally, anthropologists have undertaken ethnographic research in small, bounded villages while living among the village's relatively few inhabitants. These ethnographers may have been one of few non-natives in that part of the world and may have been one of the first non-natives that the villagers had ever seen. It may have taken these researchers a year or more in the field to gain the language skills necessary for communication before becoming able to fashion appropriate guiding questions. These long stretches away from their homelands may have been very stressful.
Today, however, fieldsites can be nearly anywhere. Research may still focus on village life, but it is also increasingly likely to take place in urban locales or in the native language of the ethnographer. Sometimes the "group" among whom one wants to study does not live in one location, and our main fieldsite will be a workplace (like a bank) or a religious center (like a mosque) or a generic meeting room where some group meets regularly (like a library meeting room where Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, but also other things also take place) or even in cyberspace (like a chat room). "Multi-sited" fieldwork, which allows ethnographers to engage in research in more than one locale for comparative purposes, is also possible.
It is possible to choose a fieldsite first and then to make a guiding question appropriate to the site. It is also possible to start with a question about a certain cultural process and to find a site where that question might be appropriate. Either method for setting up a project can work, as long as the site and the question are relevant to one another. In other words, be careful that your research questions hit on something important about social and cultural life and practices in the group you have chosen.
Once a potential fieldsite has been selected, ethnographers must negotiate entry. This involves getting permission to visit the site for research purposes from members and often from a person in authority in the site or groups as well. If this proves difficult or questions arise about how to best approach a group, students should consult their professors for advice or assistance. Sometimes it is possible for a professor to help a student gain entry by providing official assurances regarding the project and its purposes to complement that which students provide.
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reference: www.sas.upenn.edu
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