Sunday, August 29, 2010

Critical Thinking: A Definition

Critical Thinking: A Definition



Two definitions of critical thinking will be offered here as a reference for our work. The first is offered by Robert Ennis and is rootle in philosophy. "Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do". Ennis believes that terms are key to this definition: practical, reflective, reasonable, belief, and action. Critical thinking is an activity, both practical and reflective, that has reasonable belief or action as its goal. When we come to investigate the skills that emerge from this definition, well discover chat Ennis's definition includes dispositions as well as abilities.

The second definition was proposed by Robert Sternberg and reflects Sternberg's psychological concerns about thinking and intelligence. Critical thinking comprises the mental processes, strategies, and representations people use to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts" As Sternberg noted, his definition emerged from a psychological analysis of critical thinking, especially as it is thrilled to intelligence. Tracing Stemberg's view of intelligence will help us to discover those skills that seem most closely associated with critical thinking.

Having established in connection between thinking analysis biological else, the brain, we now turn our attention to the relations; tip between intelligence and thinking. We have all taken cognitive abilities tests and speculated about their results in comparison to our own assessments of our potential. You probably think in a similar way about your students: Are they working to their potential? How can I help them to improve their performance?

If we are 13 help students improve their performance on 1Q tests, achieve better grades, and prepare for life's problems, we would be wise not to be trapped by traditional views of intelligence. If we hope to did our students by directly teaching thinking skills, we must turn to a broader, more qualitative view of intelligence.
Any theory of intelligence must be able to do three things: (a) relate intelligence to an individual's internal world and explain what happens when a person thinks intelligently; (b) accept the relation between the external world and that person's intelligence, and explain how intelligence functions in the "real world"; and (c' relate intelligence to the individuals’ experiences, ith these criteria in mind, let's turn to three current interpretations of intelligence that have particular relevance for the caching of thinking skills.

Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research

Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research


Overview
In planning and carrying out an educational research project, one must never lose sight of the special requirements and problems involved in working with people. The "human relations" aspect of educational research is particularly important when the research project is carried out in the public schools. When using schoolchildren as subjects, it is necessary to obtain the understanding and cooperation of school administrators, teachers, parents, interested community groups, and the subjects themselves. Thus, the procedures section of the student's research plan should describe how he intends to gain school cooperation, how he will deal with potential human relations problems that may arise, and what precautions he will take to ensure that the plan meets the ethical standards and legal requirements that have been established for behavioral science research.
Objectives
Identify aspects of a research situation that involve ethical questions or principles.
Describe the legal constraints to educational research imposed by federal law.
Discuss the kinds of questions the researcher must answer when presenting a research plan to school officials.
Slate steps that can be taken to protect the rights of individuals who are to serve as subjects in a research project.
Define dehoaxing and desensitizing, identify research situations where these are required, and describe what steps should be taken to dehoax or desensitize research subjects.

Ethical Principles
In recent years the ethical aspects of behavioral research have been of increasing concern to the Congress, scientists, private citizens, and institutions that support this type of research. In part this concern reflects the great growth of behavioral research and its impact on people's lives. Moreover, although most researchers have acied in an ethical manner, there have been some abuses of individuals' rights.
The American Psychological Association has recently published a set of ten ethical principles for the pursuit of research activities. In planning a research project, the student should study these carefully:
In planning a study the investigator has the responsibility to make a careful evaluation of its ethical acceptability, taking into account the following additional principles for research with human beings. To the extent that this appraisal, weighing scientific and humane values, suggests a compromise of any principle, the investigator incurs an increasingly serious obligation to seek ethical advice and to observe stringent safeguards to protect the rights of the human research participants.
Responsibility for the establishment and maintenance of acceptable ethical practice in research always remains with the individual investigator. The investigator is also responsible for the ethical treatment of research participants by collaborators, assistants, students, and employees, all of whom, however, incur parallel obligations.
Ethical practice requires the investigator to inform the participant of all features of the research that might reasonably be expected to influence willingness to participate, and to explain all other aspects of the research about which the participant inquires. Failure to make full disclosure imposes additional force to the investigator's abiding responsibility to protect the welfare and dignity of the research participant.
Openness and honesty are essential characteristics of the relationship between investigator and research participant. When the methodological requirements of a study necessitate concealment or deception, the investigator is required to insure as soon as possible the participant's understanding of the reasons for this action and of a sufficient justification for the procedures employed.
Ethical practice requires the investigator to respect the individual's freedom to decline to participate in or withdraw from research. The obligation to protect this freedom requires special vigilance when the investigator is in a position of power over the participant, as, for example, when the participant is a student, client, employee, or otherwise is in a dual relationship with the investigator.
Ethically acceptable research begins with the establishment of a dear and fair agreement between the investigator and the research participant that clarifies the responsibilities of each. The investigator has the obligation to honor all promises and commitments included in that agreement.
The ethical investigator protects participants from physical and mental discomfort, harm, and danger. If a risk of such consequences exists, the investigator is required to inform the participant of that fact, secure consent before proceeding, and take all possible measures to minimize distress. A research procedure must not be used if it is likely to cause serious or lasting harm to a participant.
After the data are collected, the investigator provides the participant with information about the nature of the study and to remove any misconceptions that may have arisen. Where scientific or human values justify delaying or withholding information, the investigator acquires a special responsibility to assure that there are no damaging consequences for the participant.
When research procedures may result in undesirable consequences for the individual participant, the investigator has the responsibility to detect and remove or correct these consequences, including where relevant, long-term after effects
Information obtained about the individual research participants during the course of an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance. When the possibility exists that others may obtain access to such information, this possibility, together with the plans for protecting confidentiality, should be explained to the participants as part of the procedure for obtaining informed consent.
A psychologist using animals in research adheres to the provisions of the Rules Regarding Animals, drawn up by the Committee on Precautions and Standards in Animal Experimentation and adopted by the American Psychological Association.
Investigations of human participants using drugs should be conducted only in such settings as clinics, hospitals, or research facilities maintaining appropriate safeguards for the partidpants.

In educational research carried out by graduate students, the principles related to informing participants (c), obtaining permission from the subject or his parents (e), debriefing subjects at the end of the study (h), and protecting confidentiality of research data (j) are the ones most likely to be violated.
The protection of individual privacy in educational research involves two factors: consent of the individual as to what shall be disclosed to the researcher, and confidential use of research data collected on individuals. The researcher should obtain the consent of the individual before gathering data on him. In the case of schoolchildren, the consent of parents and appropriate school personnel should be obtained. Ideally the student should .receive some explanation of the tests and experimental procedures to be used. This explanation must satisfy the student that his participation is important and desirable and that it is to his advantage to cooperate. There are occasions, however, when it would invalidate the research findings to tell the individual beforehand the purpose of the study and the type of information that he will be expected to provide during the course of the research project. For example, in some experiments it may be necessary to give the individual false information in order to experimentally arouse or decrease his motivation. Nevertheless, even in this situation the researcher should still obtain the individual's consent to be in the experiment, and he can tell the individual that he will be informed of the experiment's purpose the study is completed. Also, if possible, the researcher should try to obtain data without using the names of the individuals involved.

There is clear evidence that the results of some studies can be drastically altered if research subjects are informed of all details of the research. For example, in a study by Resnick and Schwartz, volunteer subjects were placed in two groups, were given cards containing a verb and the six pronouns, we, you, they, she, he, and were asked to construct sentences using the verb and one pronoun. During the last 80 of the 100 trials the investigator reinforced the subjects with verbal approval each time the subject constructed a sentence which began with I or we, to determine the effects of the reinforcement. The results showed that use of I-we sentences increased for uninformed subjects and decreased for informed subjects. In this study, fully informing the subjects led to serious distortion of the results. Should the need to inform subjects, even in studies like the work of Resnick and Schwartz where no conceivable harm or danger to the subjects is possible, take precedent over the need to learn more about human behavior?. The effect of verbal reinforcement on human behavior is certainly an important question in education. The pros and cons raised when such studies are considered in relationship to ethical standards certainly merit careful consideration.

Once research data have been collected, the researcher should make certain that no one has access to the data except himself and possibly a few co-investigators. The research subjects, of course, should be told at the outset that will have access to the data. Whenever possible the names of subjects should be removed from data-collection instruments and replaced by a code. This procedure is particularly important to follow when the data are to be stored over a relatively long period of time. The researcher should take particular care with data that could conceivably be subpoenaed. Unfortunately, educational research data do not have privileged status (as does communication between husband and wife, lawyer and client, etc.) in most states. The confidentiality of the individual must further be protected by 'tot giving individual names in any publications that may result from the research project.

The student can avoid problems relating to invasion of privacy if he includes procedures in his research design for individual consent and preservation of confidentiality and if he carries out his project in an ethically responsible manner.

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka


Telaah yang dilaksanakan untuk memecahkan suatu masalah yang pada dasarnya bertumpu pada penelaahan kritis dan mendalam terhadap bahan-bahan pustaka yang relevan. Telaah pustaka semacam ini biasanya dilakukan dengan cara mengumpulkan data atau informasi dari berbagai sumber pustaka yang kemudian disajikan dengan cara baru dan atau untuk keperluan baru.
Dalam hal ini bahan-bahan pustaka itu diperlukan sebagai sumber ide untuk menggali pemikiran atau gagasan baru, sebagai bahan dasar untuk melakukan deduksi dari pengetahuan yang sudah ada, sehingga kerangka teori baru dapat dikembangkan, atau sebagai dasar pemecahan masalah.



Format Proposal Kajian Pustaka
1. Latar Belakang Masalah

Bagian ini berisi uraian atau gambaran umum yang dapat diperoleh dari koran, majalah, buku, jurnal, laporan penelitian, seminar, atau keadaan lapangan mengenai hal-hal yang ada kaitannya dengan masalah yang diteliti.
Gambaran umum ini dapat bersifat mendukung atau menunjang pendapat peneliti atau pun bersifat tidak mendukung atau menolak harapan peneliti. Selain itu juga dipaparkan uraian pemantapan terhadap pemahaman masalah, misalnya mengapa masalah yang dikemukakan dipandang menarik, penting, dan perlu ditelaah.


2. Rumusan Masalah

Bagian ini merupakan pengembangan dari uraian latar belakang masalah yang menunjukkan bahwa masalah yang akan ditelaah memang belum terjawab atau belum dipecahkan secara memuaskan. Uraian tersebut didukung berbagai publikasi yang berhubungan dengan masalah yang dikaji, yang mencakup aspek yang dikaji, konsep-konsep yang berkaitan dengan hal yang akan ditulis, dan teori yang melandasi kajian. Pembahasan ini hanya berisi uraian yang memang relevan dengan masalah yang akan dikaji serta disajikan secara sistematis dan terpadu.
Selanjutnya dituliskan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijawab melalui telaah pustaka (dalam bentuk kalimat tanya), yang memuat variabel/hubungan antarvariabel yang akan dikaji. Kata tanya yang digunakan berupa apa, mengapa, bagaimana, sejauh mana, kapan, siapa, dan sebagainya bergantung pada ruang lingkup masalah yang akan dibahas.

3. Tujuan Penelitian

Bagian ini memberikan gambaran yang khusus atau spesifik mengenai arah dari kegiatan kajian kepustakaan yang dilakukan, berupa keinginan realistis peneliti tentang hasil yang akan diperoleh. Tujuan kajian harus mempunyai kaitan atau hubungan yang relevan dengan masalah yang akan diteliti. Sebagai contoh adalah mengkaji kehidupan orang-orang yang terkenal dalam suatu bidang studi untuk mengetahui pengalaman-pengalaman mereka, bagaimana usaha mereka untuk meneliti dan menemukan apa yang sekarang dianggap sebagai hal yang biasa saja.



4. Kegunaan Penelitian

Bagian ini memberikan gambaran yang khusus atau spesifik mengenai arah dari kegiatan kajian kepustakaan yang dilakukan, berupa keinginan realistis peneliti tentang hasil yang akan diperoleh. Tujuan kajian harus mempunyai kaitan atau hubungan yang relevan dengan masalah yang akan diteliti. Sebagai contoh adalah mengkaji kehidupan orang-orang yang terkenal dalam suatu bidang studi untuk mengetahui pengalaman-pengalaman mereka, bagaimana usaha mereka untuk meneliti dan menemukan apa yang sekarang dianggap sebagai hal yang biasa saja.


5. Metode Kajian

Metode kajian menjelaskan semua langkah yang dikerjakan penulis sejak awal hingga akhir. Pada bagian ini dapat dimuat hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan anggapan-anggapan dasar atau fakta-fakta yang dipandang benar tanpa adanya verifikasi dan keterbatasan, yaitu aspek-aspek tertentu yang dijadikan kerangka berpikir. Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis masalah dan variabel yang terdapat dalam judul kajian. Analisis masalah menghasilkan variabel dan hubungan antarvariabel. Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis variabel dengan mengajukan pertanyaan mengenai masing-masing variabel dan pertanyaan yang berkaitan dengan hubungan antarvariabel. Analisis ini diperlukan untuk menyusun alur berpikir dalam memecahkan masalah.
Perlu ditekankan bahwa tulisan tentang metode kajian hendaknya didasarkan atas kajian teori dan khasanah ilmu, yaitu paradigma, teori, konsep, prinsip,hukum, postulat, dan asumsi keilmuan yang relevan dengan masalah yang dibahas.


6. Definisi Istilah

Bagian ini memberikan penjelasan mengenai istilah-istilah yang digunakan agar terdapat kesamaan penafsiran dan terhindar dari kekaburan. Bagian ini juga memberikan keterangan rinci pada bagian-bagian yang memerlukan uraian, misalnya alat peraga, sekolah, alat ukur, lokasi atau tempat, nilai, sikap, penghasilan, keadaan atau kondisi, keadaan sosial ekonomi, status, dan sebagainya.



7. Daftar Rujukan

Bahan pustaka yang dimasukkan dalam daftar rujukan harus sudah disebutkan dalam teks. Artinya, bahan pustaka yang hanya digunakan sebagai bahan bacaan tetapi tidak dirujuk dalam teks tidak dimasukkan dalam daftar rujukan. Sebaliknya, semua bahan pustaka yang disebutkan dalam skripsi, tesis, dan disertasi harus dicantumkan dalam daftar rujukan. Tatacara penulisan daftar rujukan.
Unsur yang ditulis secara berurutan meliputi:
1. nama penulis ditulis dengan urutan: nama akhir, nama awal, nama tengah, tanpa gelar akademik,
2. tahun penerbitan
3. judul, termasuk subjudul
4. kota tempat penerbitan, dan
5. nama penerbit.






Lihat resource yang lain:

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Definisi Penelitian

Jenis-jenis Penelitian

Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

Sampling Methods

Components of a Research Proposal

Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

Sample Proposal (Arabic)

Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan

Sample Proposal Skripsi (Arabic)

Sample Proposal Skripsi (Arabic)


Sample of Arabic proposals collection from Qoniah Agustina includes a research proposal that accelerates writing of effective research proposals.












تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف

بجامعة مالانج المحمّديّة



تخطيط البحث


مقدم لاستيفاء الوظيفة النهائية في المادة الطريقة البحث

تحت إشراف الأستاذ الدكتور محمد عين





بقلم

قانعة أغوستتينا

104231472156









جامعة مالانج الحكومية

كلّيّة الآداب

قسم الأدب العربي

مايو، 2007 م





تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف

بجامعة مالانج المحمديّة

أ‌. دواعى البحث

اللغة وسيلة لاتصال الفرد بغيره، وعن طريق هذا الاتصال يدرك حاجته، ويحصل مآربه، كما أنها وسيلته في التعبير عن آلامه وآماله وعواطفه (إبراهيم،1971:43). اللغة العربية من إحدى اللغات الموجودة في هذا العالم وهي في تطورها لا يتعلمها العرب فقط، بل الآخرون يتعلمون أيضا ويفهمونها. وهذه يراد بها تعلّم العلوم الدينية والعمل بها (Anshori، 1995: 1). أن دور اللغة العربية المناسب بحاجات المجتمع الإندونيسي الذي أكثرهم المسلمون هو أنها لغة القرآن والحديث والكتب الإسلامية ولغة العبادات اليومية.

وقال الفوزان وحسين وفضل (2003:ب-ت) وفي هذا العصر اهتم كثير من العرب والمسلمين بتعلم اللغة العربية وتعليمها. وعناية المسلمين- في القديم والحديث- لها أسباب كثيرة أهمها:

(1) أن اللغة العربية من الدين كما قال ابن تيمية-رحمه الله-( معلوم أن تعلّم اللغة العربية وتعليمها فرض على الكفاية) (2) قوتها سبب لعزة الاسلام والمسلمين (3) اللغة العربية من أقوى الروابط بين المسلمين (4) تعليم اللغة العربية من أهم الوسائل لعرض الثقافة الاسلامية.

المعاهد الاسلامية هي من إحدى المؤسسات التربوية غير الرسمية التي قامت بتعليم اللغة العربية منذ زمن طويل. وزاد هارون (5:1991) فإن هذه المعاهد تضع نصب عينها في تعليم القواعد من النحو والصرف، والبلاغة والعروض. والهدف العام من تعليم اللغة العربية إكساب الطلاب قدرة على فهم القرآن الكريم والأحاديث النبوية وسائر الكتب الدينية العربية.

وفقا على اختلاف أنواع المعهد المنتشر في عالم إندونيسيا، فيكون تعليم اللغة العربية في المعاهد متنوعة أيضا. بعض المعاهد يهدف تعليم اللغة العربية فيه إلى تفهيم وتعميق الدين، والأخر يهدف إلى تنمية مهارة الدارسين اللغوية حتى يمتلكوا المعلومات والمهارات في استعمال اللغة. بعبارة أخرى أن الهدف من تعليم اللغة العربية ليس أخرى سوى لمجال الدين، لكي تكون العلوم الدينية التي تصدر من الكتب العربية مدروسة ومفهومة.

وفي معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف يستعمل المدرسون الطرق التي تناسب بالطلاب. وللمدرسين أهداف منها: لتعليم شريعة الاسلام ولحرس عقيدة الاسلام.

بحثت الباحثة لوصف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف من النواحي الآتية: (1) منهج التعليم، (2) مواد التعليم، (3) وسائل التعليم، (4) تقويم التعليم.

ب‌. مشكلات التعليم

من خلفية البحث تستطيع الباحثة أن تأخذ المشكلة العامة " كيف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟"

والمشكلات الخاصة، هي:

1. كيف منهج التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

2. كيف مواد التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

3. كيف وسائل التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

4. كيف تقويم التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

ج. أهداف البحث

هدف البحث العام في هذا البحث " لوصف تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف"

أما أهداف البحث الخاصة فهي:

1. لوصف منهج التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

2. لوصف مواد التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

3. لوصف وسائل التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

4. لوصف تقويم التعليم في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف؟

د. منافع البحث

هذا البحث له منافع كثيرة فهي كما يلي:

1. للكاتبة، لمعرفة تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف ولتنمية مهارتها في اللغة العربية

2. لمدرّسي اللغة العربية، لمساعدتهم في تعليم اللغة العربية

3. لمتعلمي اللغة العربية، لمساعدتهم في فهم تعليم اللغة العربية ولتنمية مهارتهم في اللغة العربية

هـ. تحديد البحث

نظرا إلى أهداف البحث السابق فتحديد البحث هي:

بحث تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف من ناحية منهج التعليم ومواد التعليم ووسائل التعليم وتقويم التعليم.

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و. البحث النظري

هذا الباب يشمل المعلومات والنظرية عن تعليم اللغة العربية لدى الطلاب في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف

1. تعريف تعليم اللغة العربية

تعليم اللغة العربية: عملية التعليم لترشد الدارس ولتنمية كفاءة لغتهم العربية سلبيا كان أو إيجابيا(: Depag 1994 ). والمراد هنا إجراء تدريس اللغة العربية نفسها وليس التدريس عن الكتب المدروسة والمكتوبة باللغة العربية عامة مثل الفقه والتفسير والحديث والأخلاق.

2. تعريف المعهد

المعهد: مؤسّسة تربوية (تقليدية وعصرية) يتعلم فيه الطلاب العلوم الإسلامية ويفضّل أهمية الأخلاق الإسلامية (Salamun، 13: 2002)

3. تعريف المنهج

المنهج: خطة العمل وهو يجري في الميدان المدرسي يشمل أنواع الخبرات والدراسات التي توصلها المدرسة إلى التلاميذ. المنهج الدراسي هو نوع من التشريع يقصد به تنظيم العملية التعليمية (إبراهيم: 35: 1968).

أن المنهج الدراسي هو خطة لطريق واضح ينبغي أنيسالكه التربويون لتحقيق أهدافهم (طعيمة: 122: 1986). وزاد أنشار ( 1989:18) أن المنهج الدراسي يشمل جميع الخبرات التعليمية في المدرسة، وهو يتكون من المنهج والتخطيط والمواد والخبرات التعليمية.

4. تعريف المواد

المواد: ما يستخدمه المعلم ليملكه الطلبة ( أبو أحمدي، وفي ورديمان، 19:2003). وبتعريف أخر هي المعلومات التي يقصد بها المعلم أن يوصلها إلى التلاميذ. والمواد التعليمية تحمل الطلاب إلى الهدف التعليمي المناسب بمنهج التعليم المستخدم. المواد هي جميع المعلومات والمعارف التي أوصلها المدري إلى أذهان التلاميذ.

5. تعريف الوسائل

الوسائل التعليمية: مايزيد عملية التعليم سهلا ويزيد الدرس وضوحا للدارس. تشمل الوسائل غالبا مواد تعليم من كتب ومجلات وغيرها من مصادر معلومات مطبعات، وتشمل معينات تعليم. وما ذلك إلا يدل على أن الوسائل أكبر شمولا من العينات. كما عربه صيني والقاسمي (1984:3) في كتابهما أن الوسائل التعليمية يقصد بها عادة المعينات السمعية أو البصرية التي يستخدمها المعلم في تدريس مادته ليبلغ الهدف المقصود بأفضل صورة ممكنة ويصبغ على العملية التربوية شيئا من الاثارة والمتعة.

6. تعريف التقويم

التقويم: تعيين القيمة أو منفعة الشيئ. يحتوي التقويم حصول الاختبار لتستعمل في نظر المنفعة أو القيمة أو البرنامج أو المنتاج أو الاجراءات أو الهدف أو الفائدة المحتملة من تقريبات الاختيار المخططة لنيل الأهداف المقررة (ورطين وسانديرس، 1973: 19) في رسالة الماجستيرية:37) يعتبر التقويم عملية بسيطة تعطي أو تحدد قيمة لعدد الأهداف والأنشطة والقضايا والأعمال والإنسان (دفيس، 3:1981). وقدم واند وبرون أن التقويم يعتبر عملية لتعيين القيمة من الشيء ( يوسف وأنوار 1997: 209).

{mospagebreak}

هـ. طريقة البحث

1. منهج البحث

منهج البحث هو استيراتيجية أو كيفية عامة يستخدم الباحث لجمع المعلومات وتحليلها وتفيدها لحل المشكلات. (Ary, dkk, tanpa tahun: 50) . وأما منهج البحث البحث المستتخدم للباحثة هو منهج البحث الوصفي: وصف المعلومات، وجمعها، وتصنيفها، وتنظيمها (كميا أو كيفيا)

2. المعلومات ومصادرها

إن معلومات البحث هي نتيجة ملاحظة البحث كانت الواقع أو الرقم (Arikunto, 2002: 96). واعتمادا على مشكلات البحث وأهدافه السابق على أى المعلومات في هذا البحث هي تعليم اللغة العربية في معهد عبد الرحمن بن عوف بالنظر إلى ناحية المنهج و المواد والوسائل والتقويم.

وأما مصادر المعلومات فهي المقابلة و الملاحظة و الوثيقة والاستبانة.

3. أدوات البحث

أدوات البحث هي شيء مهم في البحث لأنها متعلق بالمعلومات أو الظاهر الواقع الميداني إما معلومات كمية أو كيفية بدقة ودقيق على المعلومات المجموعة، ولنيل تلك المعلومات يحتاج إلى أدوات البحث.(Ainin, 2005: 107) وإضافة إلى ذلك أن أدوات البحث هو آلة مستخدمة في نيل البيان وجمعة ولحل المشكلات أو لتبليغ أغراض البحث كانت معلومة كمية أو كيفية. وأدوات البحث التي تستخدمها الباحثة هي: (1) المقابلة، (2) الملاحظة الميدانية، (3) الوثائق، (4) الاستبانة

4. طريقة جمع المعلومات

جمع المعلومات هو شيئ مهم في إجراء عملية البحث العلمي، ويجمع المعلومات يستطيع الباحث أن يحصله المعارف والمظاهر المهم صحيحا وعلميا، لكي يستطيع هذا البحث أن يحصله أي ينتاجه الباحث عملية ومسؤولية عن دقته ((Ainin, 2005: 107. وأما طريقة جمع المعلومات أقيمت الباحثة بالخطوات إلى ما يلي: (1) المقابلة و(2) الملاحظة و(3) الوثيقة و(4) الاستبانة (5) تحليل المعلومات

وتحليل المشكلات Menurut Patton (dalam Ainin, 2005)هو عملية تنظيم المعلومات وترتيبها في التصميمات والنوع وموحدة الشرح الأساسي لكي يوجد المضمون ويعبره الباحث فرض العمل كما حصلة تلك المعلومات. وجرى تحليل المعلومات في هذا البحث بالخطوات التالية: (1) تصنيف البيانات (2) تزكية البيانات (3) تلخيص البيانات.



قائمة المراجع

أحمد، محمد عبد القادر. 1979. طرق تعليم اللغة العربية. مكتبة النهضة المصرية.

إبراهيم، عبد العليم. 1971. الموجه الفنى لمدرسين اللغة العربية. القاهرة: دار المعارف.

الفوزان، عبد الرحمن بن إبراهيم، فضل، مختار الطاهر محمد، فضل محمد عبد الخالق محمد. 2003 . العربية بين يديك. الرياض: المملكة العربية السعودية.

الهاشمي، عابد توفيق. دون السنة. الموجه العملي لمدرسي اللغة العربية. مؤسسة الرسالة.

هارون، محمد يوسف. 1991. مشكلات تعليم اللغة العربية في المعاهد الإسلامية. مقالة مقدمة في الندوة عن اللغة العربية بمناسبة ذكرى 64 عاما لمعهد التربية الإسلامية كونتور بالتعاون مع معهد العلوم الإسلامية والعربية السعودية، 11 يونيو 1991.

هجرية. 2005. تعليم قواعد اللغة العربية دراسة في معهد فردوس للطلاب والطالبات مالانج. بحث العلم. غير منشور. جامعة مالانج الحكومية.

ورديمان.2003. تعليم اللغة العربية في المدارس الثانوية الإسلامية الحكومية بفماتنج سيانتار. رسالة الماجستير. مالانج: قسم الدراسات العليا الجامعة الإسلامية الإندونيسية. السودانية.

طعيمة، رشدي أحمد. 1986. المرجع في تعليم اللغة العربية للناطقين بلغات أخرى. جامعة أم القرى. الرياض: وحدة البحوث والمناهج.



Anshori, Ahmad Isa. 1995. Pembudayaan Bahasa Arab di Pondok Pesantren Nurul Haramain (PPNH) Desa Ngroto Kec. Pujon Kab. Malang: Telaah penumbuhan Bi’ah Arabiyah (Lingkungan Kearaban). Skripsi tidak diterbitkan. Malang: FPBS IKIP Malang.

Arikunto, Suharsimi. 2002. Prosedur Penelitian. Jakarta: PT Asdy Mahastya

Ary, Donald. 1982. Introduction to Research In Education. Terjemah oleh Furchan, Arief. 1982. Pengantar Penelitian dalam Pendidikan. Surabaya: Pustaka Progresif.

Direktorat Jenderal Kelembagaan Agama Islam. 2003. Kurikulum berbasis Kompetensi, Kurikulum dan Hasil Belajar Bahasa Arab Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Departemen Agama.

Effendy, Ahmad Fuad. 2004. Metodologi Pengajaran Bahasa Arab. Malang: Misykat.

Salamun, Muhammad. 2002. Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di Pondok Pesantren ( Studi kasus Pondok Pesantren Modern Al Barokah Ngepung Patinrowo Nganjuk). Tesis tidak dipublikasikan. Malang: Universitas Negeri Malang.











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Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

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Components of a Research Proposal

Components of a Research Proposal






I. Statement of the Problem

The problem statement is the guiding theme of the proposal. This section should include a statement of the purpose of the study and should specify its objectives.

Purpose of the Study. This section should explain why the research is being conducted. It should establish the importance of the problem addressed by the research and explain why the research is needed. For example, it might establish the seriousness of juvenile antisocial behavior nationally and describe the gaps that exist in the knowledge about this behavior. It might also explain why the specific knowledge gap chosen is of particular importance.

Objectives. This section should describe what the investigator hopes to accomplish with the research. After reading this section, the reader should be clear about the questions to be asked, the kinds of answers expected, and the nature of the information to be provided by the proposed research. For example, one might propose to test a drug abuse treatment approach to determine the intervention characteristics that contribute differentially to the success of adolescent boys and girls who participate in the program. Expected outcomes might also include the provision of descriptive information not currently available. An example of this might be a comparison of arrest rates for participants in the years prior to and following participation in the program.


II. Review of the Literature

This section will review published research related to the purpose and objectives described above. It should be noted that references may be found throughout the proposal, but it is preferable for most of the literature review to be reported in this section.

A review of the literature should also relate to the hypotheses, definition and operationalization of variables, methodology and data analysis that follow. It should summarize the results of previous studies that have reported relationships among the variables included in the proposed research.

An important function of the literature review is to provide a theoretical explanation of the relationships among the variables of interest. It is most important that the review explain what mechanisms link the variables. The review can also provide descriptive information about related problems, intervention programs and target populations.

The literature review must address three areas:

Topic or problem area: This part of the literature review covers material directly related to the problem being studied. There will usually be at least two substantive areas reviewed because most research involves variables that have been studied in separate substantive areas. For example, a study on some aspect of juvenile antisocial behavior suggests a review of the literatures on anti-social behavior, adolescent development and families at risk. As another example, research on the differential impact on males and females of intervention characteristics in a substance abuse program would require a review of the literature on substance abuse programs, the specific intervention characteristics in question, and pertinent research on gender differences. As another example, research on conceptualizations of work in high stress settings would suggest a review of literature on the stress factors in such settings, the concept of stress and the development of job-related attitudes.
Theory area: Investigators must identify the social science theory which relates to the problem area. Examples of such theories might be sex-role theory, theories of deviance, organizational theory, small group theory, family systems theory, or conflict theory. The theory area provides the theoretical "lens" through which the writer chooses to view and understand the problem. It provides guidelines for explaining the etiology of problems and the linking mechanisms that connect variables.
Methodology: Investigators must review the literature which is appropriate to various aspects of their chosen method, including design, selection of subjects, and methods of data collection. This section describes research methods and measurement approaches used in previous investigations in the area. This content should be considered in designing the proposed research and used to support the choice of design and measurement techniques. Otherwise, the investigator must explain why s/he has chosen methods or approaches that have not been used previously.
After reading the literature review, the reader should understand the problem area you have selected and the theoretical models, findings, methodologies, and measurement techniques that have been used in previous, related research efforts. The literature review should lead up to specific hypotheses, which are then listed at the end of the literature review.



III. Methodology

Subjects. Subjects can be individuals, families, groups, organizations, states, or countries, depending on the unit of analysis. This section will describe how the sample in the study will be selected. For example, will volunteers be solicited? Will every subject who volunteers be included? If not, what criteria will be used to choose those to be included? Will there be a comparison group? How will the subjects in that group be chosen? In addition to describing how subjects will be chosen, this section should provide a rationale for the selection approach taken. This rationale usually includes external validity requirements (i.e., the conditions necessary to generalize the findings to a particular target population). After reading this section, the reader should have a clear understanding of how subjects will be selected for the proposed research and of why they will be selected in that particular manner. The reader should also have a clear idea of the characteristics of the intended subjects, including age, sex, ethnicity, education, SES, and other related variables.

Design, This section will describe the type of research design to be used. Will it be an idiographic, survey, quasi-experimental or experimental design? Will it be cross-sectional or longitudinal? Will it be a retrospective or a prospective design? The design should also describe the sequence of events that will occur in conducting the research. This would include how the subjects will be divided up, what the subjects are expected to experience during the research, and when and how often they will be observed or asked for information. After reading this section, the reader should have a clear understanding of the overall design of the study.

Data Collection. This section will operationalize the variables to be included in the proposed evaluation. It is helpful to divide the variables into dependent variables, independent variables, and covariates. Dependent variables are outcomes (e.g., drug abuse, self-esteem, depression) which are affected directly by other variables. They might also include variables which are affected indirectly (e.g., arrest rates, recidivism, employment record). Independent variables can include intervention approaches, program characteristics, and subject characteristics believed to affect the dependent variables. Covariates are additional independent variables included in the research solely for the purpose of controlling for differences that might exist among subjects. These differences are controlled statistically so that they will not confound conclusions that are drawn about relationships between independent variables and dependent variables.

A description of how each variable will be measured should be included in this section. Ideally, one should measure each variable two different ways so that some estimate of measurement validity can be made. After reading this section, the reader will know the specific variables that will be included in the proposed study and, most important. how they will be measured.



IV. Data Analysis

This section will explain how the data will be analyzed once they are collected. Usually, more than one analysis is conducted. Each analysis that will be used to meet each objective listed above should be described. Also a description of the specific effects to be examined in each analysis, such as main effects, interaction effects. or simple main effects, should be included.

The unit of analysis to be used should be specified and the reason for choosing that unit should be explained. After reading this section, the reader should know which effects will guide the data analysis and in exactly what way the data are to be analyzed to meet each objective of the proposed study.

Data analyses should be specifically linked to the hypotheses so that it is clear how each hypothesis will be tested.



V. Bibliography

The bibliography should include full reference documentation for all articles and texts mentioned in the proposal. It is important that the investigator fully review relevant previous work in developing the proposal.



VI. Timetable

This section will describe the sequence of activities necessary to conduct the research. It will include the time necessary to complete each activity. After reading this section, the reader will have a clear understanding of what steps will be taken, the order in which they will occur, and the time each step will require.







Sumber: www.wisc.edu



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Research: Sampling Methods

Research: Sampling Methods


It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.

Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.


Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.



Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.



Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.



Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.



Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.



Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.



Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.



Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

(http://www.statpac.com/surveys/sampling.htm)







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Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

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How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide



The following section was authored by Barbara Hall and is intended to provide general, simplified information about how to conduct and write up the results of ethnographic research. The information that follows falls into three general areas: guidance through the steps necessary to plan and conduct an interesting and appropriate ethnographic term project, even in a class that does not devote much or any time to teaching ethnographic methodology, help in making sense of what is learned through the research, both with regards to the fieldsite in question and to anthropological theory, and assistance in rendering the both research process and what was learned through it accessible to readers through established conventions for writing ethnographic research papers.
The pages below are arranged in a loose order which can take you step-by-step through the research and writing process involved in ethnography. Novice ethnographers are encouraged to read through the following in its entirety before beginning a project.


Objectivity, Ethnographic Insight and Ethnographic Authority
Students learning about ethnography for the first time are often tempted to promise fervently to be "objective" in their research and to learn what is "really" happening in the field. However, anthropologists have long since acknowledged that ethnographic research is not objective research at all. The following are some of the reasons for this conclusion:
Ethnography is an interpretive endeavor undertaken by human beings with multiple and varied commitments which can and do affect how the research is done and reported. We all have backgrounds, biographies, and identities which affect what questions we ask and what we learn in the field, how our informants let us in to their lives, and how our own interpretive lenses work.

Not all fieldsites are "foreign" for ethnographers in the same way. Some ethnographers are native to the communities in which they study, whereas some enter as complete strangers with no obvious common ground. Even though they may learn somewhat different things, both kinds of researchers are legitimately able to undertake ethnographic research.

Ethnography is not replicable research (like many kinds of science).

Ethnography is not based on large numbers of cases (like quantitative research).
How can any research done under such circumstances, which is not even pretending to be objective, have any worth at all? In other words, how can we claim ethnographic insight into cultural practices? What is the basis of ethnographic authority under these conditions? Anthropologists have seriously considered these charges, and concluded that there are several ways in which insight and authority in ethnographic research can be persuasively claimed:

Anthropologists generally subscribe to some form of cultural relativism, meaning that we believe that there is no one standpoint from which to judge all cultures and ways of being in the world. Because of this, we are conditioned to see various perspectives as "positioned" (Abu-Lughod 1991), and the things that we learn in the field as "partial truths" (Clifford 1986). Therefore, there is not one single truth in a research situation to be uncovered; there are many.
Ethnographers are expected to be "reflexive" in their work, which means that we should provide our readers with a brief, clear picture of how the research we have done has been or could have been affected by what we bring to it. This can take the form of revealing details of our own experience or background to readers up front.
Ethnographers should have more than one way to show how we arrived at the conclusions of our research; we expect to have a collection of fieldnotes, interviews, and site documents (where possible) which work together to support our claims. This is called triangulation.
Ethnographic research takes place in depth and over a great deal of time, often months or years for professional ethnographers. Ethnographic conclusions are, therefore, arrived at only after lengthy consideration.
Sanjek (1990) recommends that readers and writers of ethnography focus on what he calls the "validity" of ethnography. In this way, we can judge the clarity with which decisions regarding the application of theory to data are explained as well as follow ways in which events in the text are persuasively linked in making the conclusions presented there.
Guiding Questions
One of the first things we need early on in order to conduct a successful ethnographic project is an appropriate guiding question. Having a guiding question before beginning fieldwork is a good idea because it gives you some way to focus your attention productively in early visits to your fieldsite. Of course, this question might change in the course of the research as more is learned; this happens often and can be a step towards especially insightful research!
Guiding questions are aimed at the basic point of ethnography: gaining the world view of a group of people. Common formats for guiding questions might be:
How do members of a particular group perceive of or understand a certain social or cultural phenomenon? (This is often seen through behavior of some kind.)
Example: How do sexually active high school students in rural American conveive of and negotiate the use of birth control?

How is a certain social or cultural practice socially constructed among members of a certain group?
Example: How is arranged marriage socially constructed among matchmakers in contemporary Japan?
Modern ethnographies focus on a central guiding question that connects the local fieldsite to larger anthropological questions about how culture works. Guiding questions should encode larger questions regarding culture or social practice within them. Since everyone is cultural, the ways of life of all groups - familiar, unfamiliar, rich, poor, popular, unpopular - are potential ethnographic topics. While many ethnographies have focused on the poorest or most disenfranchised populations in societies, students are encouraged to "study up" as well. This refers to studying powerful groups and institutions. How and why do these groups gain, maintain, and exercise power? Note that since groups of people are not homogenous or static, it is often most effective to study a social process at work over time.
In choosing a guiding question, be sure first that it is answerable through ethnographic research. It may be helpful to review the description of ethnography provided in this site to make sure that your question is appropriate. Remember that quantitative research, public policy research, and journalism may seem similar but are importantly distinct from ethnography; examples of the kinds of questions these consider are included there. It is also a good idea to show the guiding question to the professor for help in deciding whether or not it is appropriately anthropological and able to be addressed by ethnographic means.


Fieldsites
Traditionally, anthropologists have undertaken ethnographic research in small, bounded villages while living among the village's relatively few inhabitants. These ethnographers may have been one of few non-natives in that part of the world and may have been one of the first non-natives that the villagers had ever seen. It may have taken these researchers a year or more in the field to gain the language skills necessary for communication before becoming able to fashion appropriate guiding questions. These long stretches away from their homelands may have been very stressful.
Today, however, fieldsites can be nearly anywhere. Research may still focus on village life, but it is also increasingly likely to take place in urban locales or in the native language of the ethnographer. Sometimes the "group" among whom one wants to study does not live in one location, and our main fieldsite will be a workplace (like a bank) or a religious center (like a mosque) or a generic meeting room where some group meets regularly (like a library meeting room where Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, but also other things also take place) or even in cyberspace (like a chat room). "Multi-sited" fieldwork, which allows ethnographers to engage in research in more than one locale for comparative purposes, is also possible.
It is possible to choose a fieldsite first and then to make a guiding question appropriate to the site. It is also possible to start with a question about a certain cultural process and to find a site where that question might be appropriate. Either method for setting up a project can work, as long as the site and the question are relevant to one another. In other words, be careful that your research questions hit on something important about social and cultural life and practices in the group you have chosen.
Once a potential fieldsite has been selected, ethnographers must negotiate entry. This involves getting permission to visit the site for research purposes from members and often from a person in authority in the site or groups as well. If this proves difficult or questions arise about how to best approach a group, students should consult their professors for advice or assistance. Sometimes it is possible for a professor to help a student gain entry by providing official assurances regarding the project and its purposes to complement that which students provide.

for more details, click search.





reference: www.sas.upenn.edu






Lihat resource yang lain:

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Definisi Penelitian

Jenis-jenis Penelitian

Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

Sampling Methods

Components of a Research Proposal

Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

Sample Proposal (Arabic)

Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan









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Contoh Jabaran Variabel Penelitian, Sub Variabel dan Indikator Penelitian (7234)
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Tutorial_Classroom Action Research (1354)
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Pendekatan Konstruktivis untuk Pengajaran Reading Bahasa Inggris (1313)
(Jurnal)
Perbedaan Individual dalam Proses Pembelajaran di Sekolah Dasar (1254)
(Jurnal)

Kode Etik Penelitian Ilmiah di Internet

Kode Etik Penelitian Ilmiah di Internet


Beberapa waktu yang lalu saya mendapati beberapa peneliti yang mengumpulkan data lewat media internet. Bagaimanakah pendapat khalayak tentang penelitian yang dilakukan di internet? Layakkah? Atau malah sebaliknya?



"Research on the internet is valuable, not only because it can provide insight into a new and important communication channel, but also because the net opens up the possibility to study known phenomena in new ways." - from the Research ethics guidelines for internet research. (http://ethicsportfolio.blogspot.com)

Tulisan ni saya saya sadur dari Natalie Young dalam Internet Research Ethics, dengan ruang lingkup Electronic Pathfinder (e-pathfinder), yang berisi: General Resources Detailed Resources Opinions Books. Untuk masing-masing rinciannya adalah sebagai berikut:


Association of Internet Researchers
http://www.aoir.org/
This website is host the Association of Internet Researchers and has a wealth of of general as well as specific information on internet research. While membership is required to view detailed information many of the resources on the site are free, including the Ethics report approved by the membership of AoIR.

Code of Ethics of the American Library Association
http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/codeofethics/codeethics.htm
This websites provides the code of ethics approved the American Library Association. It is an excellent starting point for librarians to use a basis when conducting online research.

INTERNET LIBRARY FOR LIBRARIANS
http://www.itcompany.com/inforetriever/index.html
This website is an internet library for librarians and provides links to a wealth of information. Although, the site doesn’t focus on ethics specifically it is a good place to get background materials, including information on copyright.

Journal of Ethics and Information Technology
http://www.springerlink.com/link.asp?id=103461
This journal has an online abstract archive going back to March 1999. Purchase of full text articles is available. “Ethics and Information Technology is a peer-reviewed journal dedicated to advancing the dialogue between moral philosophy and the field of information and communication technology (ICT). The journal aims to foster and promote reflection and analysis which is intended to make a constructive contribution to answering the ethical, social and political questions associated with the adoption, use, and development of ICT.”

Ethical Decision Making and Internet Research
http://www.aoir.org/reports/ethics.pdf
This document provides an in-depth discussion of recommendations from AoIR on ethical decision making.

Internet Research Ethics
http://www.nyu.edu/projects/nissenbaum/ethics_ess.html

Ethical Issues of Online Communication Research
http://www.nyu.edu/projects/nissenbaum/ethics_cap_full.html
“The paper addresses several ethical issues in online communication research in light of digital ontology as well as the epistemological questions raised by the blurring boundary between fact and theory in this field.”

What is special about the ethical issues in online research?
http://www.nyu.edu/projects/nissenbaum/ethics_elg_full.html

“In the analysis of the ethical problems of online research, there is much to be learned from the work that has already been done on research ethics in the social sciences and the humanities. I discuss the structure of norms in the Norwegian ethical guidelines for research in the social sciences with respect to their relevance for the ethical issues of Internet research.”

RESEARCH ETHICS: INTERNET-BASED RESEARCH
http://ca916.tripod.com/index-4.html
“The main purpose of these notes is to increase awareness about a "macro-level" issue in Internet research ethics. This second issue is about the restrictions on the dissemination of research reports that are imposed if they are published only in journals that require the "consumer" of research to pay for access. In contrast, research reports that are freely and openly accessible online may have much greater impact, especially on those who are not themselves researchers or scholars in developed countries.”







Lihat resource yang lain:

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Definisi Penelitian

Jenis-jenis Penelitian

Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

Sampling Methods

Components of a Research Proposal

Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

Sample Proposal (Arabic)

Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan





Latest Articles
Types of Documents
Mining Data from Documents
Stemberg's Triarchic Model of Intelligence
Critical Thinking: A Definition
Ethics, Legal Constraints, and Human Relations In Educational Research
Lomba 17an di Pustakaku.net
Latest Download
Contoh Jabaran Variabel Penelitian, Sub Variabel dan Indikator Penelitian (7234)
(Ebook)
Thesis: Action Research Tutorial (3126)
(Ebook)
Strategi Belajar Kooperatif dalam Belajar Mengajar Kontektual (3002)
(Jurnal)
Tutorial_Classroom Action Research (1354)
(Ebook)
Pendekatan Konstruktivis untuk Pengajaran Reading Bahasa Inggris (1313)
(Jurnal)
Perbedaan Individual dalam Proses Pembelajaran di Sekolah Dasar (1254)
(Jurnal)

Jenis-jenis Penelitian Ilmiah

Jenis-jenis Penelitian Ilmiah

Penelitian dapat digolongkan / dibagi ke dalam beberapa jenis berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria tertentu, antara lain berdasarkan: (1) Tujuan; (2) Pendekatan; (3) Tempat; (4) Pemakaian atau hasil / alasan yang diperoleh; (5) Bidang ilmu yang diteliti; (6) Taraf Penelitian; (7) Teknik yang digunakan; (8) Keilmiahan; (9) Spesialisasi bidang (ilmu) garapan. Berikut ini masing-masing pembagiannya.
Berdasarkan hasil/alasan yang diperoleh:

Basic Research (Penelitian Dasar), Mempunyai alasan intelektual, dalam rangka pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan;
Applied Reseach (Penelitian Terapan), Mempunyai alasan praktis, keinginan untuk mengetahui; bertujuan agar dapat melakukan sesuatu yang lebih baik, efektif, efisien.

Berdasarkan Bidang yang diteliti:

Penelitian Sosial, secara khusus meneliti bidang sosial: ekonomi, pendidikan, hukum, dsb.
Penelitian Eksakta, secara khusus meneliti bidang eksakta: Kimia, Fisika, Teknik, dsb.


Berdasarkan Tempat Penelitian :

Field Research (Penelitian Lapangan), langsung di lapangan;
Library Research (Penelitian Kepustakaan), dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan literatur (kepustakaan) dari penelitian sebelumnya;
Laboratory Research (Penelitian Laboratorium), dilaksanakan pada tempat tertentu / lab, biasanya bersifat eksperimen atau percobaan;


Berdasarkan Teknik yang digunakan :

Survey Research (Penelitian Survei), tidak melakukan perubahan (tidak ada perlakuan khusus) terhadap variabel yang diteliti.
Experimen Research (Penelitian Percobaan), dilakukan perubahan (ada perlakuan khusus) terhadap variabel yang diteliti.


Berdasarkan Keilmiahan :

1. Penelitian Ilmiah

Menggunakan kaidah-kaidah ilmiah (Mengemukakan pokok-pokok pikiran, menyimpulkan dengan melalui prosedur yang sistematis dengan menggunakan pembuktian ilmiah/meyakinkan. Ada dua kriteria dalam menentukan kadar/tinggi-rendahnya mutu ilmiah suatu penelitian yaitu:

Kemampuan memberikan pengertian yang jelas tentang masalah yang diteliti:
Kemampuan untuk meramalkan: sampai dimana kesimpulan yang sama dapat dicapai apabila data yang sama ditemukan di tempat/waktu lain;
Ciri-ciri penelitian ilmiah adalah:

Purposiveness, fokus tujuan yang jelas;
Rigor, teliti, memiliki dasar teori dan disain metodologi yang baik;
Testibility, prosedur pengujian hipotesis jelas
Replicability, Pengujian dapat diulang untuk kasus yang sama atau yang sejenis;
Objectivity, Berdasarkan fakta dari data aktual : tidak subjektif dan emosional;
Generalizability, Semakin luas ruang lingkup penggunaan hasilnya semakin berguna;
Precision, Mendekati realitas dan confidence peluang kejadian dari estimasi dapat dilihat;
Parsimony, Kesederhanaan dalam pemaparan masalah dan metode penelitiannya.


2. Penelitian non ilmiah (Tidak menggunakan metode atau kaidah-kaidah ilmiah)

Berdasarkan Spesialisasi Bidang (ilmu) garapannya : Bisnis (Akunting, Keuangan, Manajemen, Pemasaran), Komunikasi (Massa, Bisnis, Kehumasan/PR, Periklanan), Hukum (Perdata, Pidana, Tatanegara, Internasional), Pertanian (agribisnis, Agronomi, Budi Daya Tanaman, Hama Tanaman), Teknik, Ekonomi (Mikro, Makro, Pembangunan), dll.
Berdasarkan dari hadirnya variabel (ubahan) : variabel adalah hal yang menjadi objek penelitian, yang ditatap, yang menunjukkan variasi baik kuantitatif maupun kualitatif. Variabel : masa lalu, sekarang, akan datang. Penelitian yang dilakukan dengan menjelaskan / menggambarkan variabel masa lalu dan sekarang (sedang terjadi) adalah penelitian deskriptif ( to describe = membeberkan/menggambarkan). Penelitian dilakukan terhadap variabel masa yang akan datang adalah penelitian eksperimen.


PENELITIAN SECARA UMUM :

o Penelitian Survei:

Untuk memperoleh fakta dari gejala yang ada;
Mencari keterangan secara faktual dari suatu kelompok, daerah dsb.
Melakukan evaluasi serta perbandingan terhadap hal yang telah dilakukan orang lain dalam menangani hal yang serupa;
Dilakukan terhadap sejumlah individu / unit baik secara sensus maupun secara sampel;
Hasilnya untuk pembuatan rencana dan pengambilan keputusan;
Penelitian ini dapat berupa :
Penelitian Exploratif (Penjajagan). Terbuka, mencari-cari, pengetahuan peneliti tentang masalah yang diteliti masih terbatas. Pertanyaan dalam studi penjajagan ini misalnya : Apakah yang paling mencemaskan anda dalam hal infrastruktur di daerah Kalbar dalam lima tahun terakhir ini? Menurut anda, bagaimana cara perawatan infrastruktur jalan dan jembatan yang baik.
Penelitian Deskriptif. Mempelajari masalah dalam masyarakat, tata cara yang berlaku dalam masyarakat serta situasi-situasi, sikap, pandangan, proses yang sedang berlangsung, pengaruh dari suatu fenomena; pengukuran yang cermat tentang fenomena dalam masyarakat. Peneliti mengembangkan konsep, menghimpun fakta, tapi tidak menguji hipotesis.
Penelitian Evaluasi. Mencari jawaban tentang pencapaian tujuan yang digariskan sebelumnya. Evaluasi di sini mencakup formatif (melihat dan meneliti pelaksanaan program), Sumatif (dilaksanakan pada akhir program untuk mengukur pencapaian tujuan).
Penelitian Eksplanasi (Penjelasan). Menggunakan data yang sama, menjelaskan hubungan kausal antara variabel melalui pengujian hipotesis.
Penelitian Prediksi. Meramalkan fenomena atau keadaan tertentu;
Penelitian Pengembangan Sosial. Dikembangkan berdasarkan survei yang dilakukan secara berkala: Misal: Jumlah dan Persentase Penduduk Miskin di Kalbar, 1998-2003;


o Grounded Research

Mendasarkan diri pada fakta dan menggunakan analisis perbandingan; bertujuan mengadakan generalisasi empiris, menetapkan konsep, membuktikan teori, mengembangkan teori; pengumpulan dan analisis data dalam waktu yang bersamaan. Dalam riset ini data merupakan sumber teori, teori berdasarkan data. Ciri-cirinya : Data merupakan sumber teori dan sumber hipotesis, Teori menerangkan data setelah data diurai.



TUJUAN PENELITIAN :

Secara umum ada empat tujuan utama :

Tujuan Exploratif (Penemuan) : menemukan sesuatu yang baru dalam bidang tertentu
Tujuan Verifikatif (Pengujian): menguji kebenaran sesuatu dalam bidang yang telah ada
Tujuan Developmental (Pengembangan) : mengembangkan sesuatu dalam bidang yang telah ada
Penulisan Karya Ilmiah (Skripsi, Tesis, Disertasi)


PERANAN PENELITIAN

Pemecahan Masalah, meningkatkan kemampuan untuk menginterpretasikan fenomena-fenomena dari suatu masalah yang kompleks dan kait-mengkait;
Memberikan jawaban atas pertanyaan dalam bidang yang diajukan, meningkatkan kemampuan untuk menjelaskan atau menggambarkan fenomena-fenomena dari masalah tersebut;
Mendapatkan pengetahuan / ilmu baru :


PERSYARATAN PENELITIAN :

Mengikuti konsep ilmiah
Sistematis/Pola tertentu
Terencana


Penelitian dikatakan baik bila :

Purposiveness, Tujuan yang jelas;
Exactitude, Dilakukan dengan hati-hati, cermat, teliti;
Testability, Dapat diuji atau dikaji;
Replicability, Dapat diulang oleh peneliti lain;
Precision and Confidence, Memiliki ketepatan dan keyakinan jika dihubungkan dengan populasi atau sampel;
Objectivity, Bersifat objektif;
Generalization, Berlaku umum;
Parismony, Hemat, tidak berlebihan;
Consistency, data/ungkapan yang digunakan harus selalu sama bagi kata/ungkapan yang memiliki arti sama;
Coherency, Terdapat hubungan yang saling menjalin antara satu bagian dengan bagian lainnya.


PROSEDUR / LANGKAH-LANGKAH PENELITIAN :

Garis besar :

Pembuatan rancangan;
Pelaksanaan penelitian;
Pembuatan laporan penelitian
Bagan arus kegiatan penelitian

Memilih Masalah; memerlukan kepekaan
Studi Pendahuluan; studi eksploratoris, mencari informasi;
Merumuskan Masalah; jelas, dari mana harus mulai, ke mana harus pergi dan dengan apa
Merumuskan anggapan dasar; sebagai tempat berpijak, (hipotesis);
Memilih pendekatan; metode atau cara penelitian, jenis / tipe penelitian : sangat menentukan variabel apa, objeknya apa, subjeknya apa, sumber datanya di mana;
Menentukan variabel dan Sumber data; Apa yang akan diteliti? Data diperoleh dari mana?
Menentukan dan menyusun instrumen; apa jenis data, dari mana diperoleh? Observasi, interview, kuesioner?
Mengumpulkan data; dari mana, dengan cara apa?
Analisis data; memerlukan ketekunan dan pengertian terhadap data. Apa jenis data akan menentukan teknis analisisnya
Menarik kesimpulan; memerlukan kejujuran, apakah hipotesis terbukti?
Menyusun laporan; memerlukan penguasaan bahasa yang baik dan benar.
Sumber: (abdulhamid.files.wordpress.com)







Lihat resource yang lain:

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Definisi Penelitian

Jenis-jenis Penelitian

Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

Sampling Methods

Components of a Research Proposal

Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

Sample Proposal (Arabic)

Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan

Definisi Penelitian Ilmiah

Definisi Penelitian Ilmiah




Definisi Penelitian ilmiah skripsi, tesis, disertasi dan penelitian







Suatu usaha untuk mengumpulkan, mencatat dan menganalisa sesuatu masalah.

suatu penyelidikan secara sistematis, atau dengan giat dan berdasarkan ilmu pengetahuan mengenai sifat-sifat daripada kejadian atau keadaan-keadaan dengan maksud untuk akan menetapkan faktor-faktor pokok atau akan menemukan paham-paham baru dalam mengembangkan metode-metode baru.

penyedilidikan dari suatu bidang ilmu pengetahuan yang dijalankan utnuk memperoleh fakta-fakta atau prinsip-prinsip dengan sabar, hati-hati serta sistematis.

usaha untuk menemukan, mengembangkan dan menguji kebenaran suatu pengetahuan usaha mana dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode-metode ilmiah.

pemikiran yang sistematis mengenai berbagai jenis masalah yang pemecahannya memerlukan pengumpulan dan penafsiran fakta-fakta.


Dari kelima definisi di atas dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut:

Merupakan usaha untuk memperoleh fakta-fakta atau mengembangkan prinsip-prinsip (menemukan/mengembangkan/ menguji kebenaran).
Dengan cara/kegiatan mengumpulkan, mencatat dan menganalisa data (informasi/keterangan)
Dikerjakan dengan sabar, hati-hati, sistematis dan berdasarkan ilmu pengetahuan dengan metode ilmiah.

Sedangkan sifat atau ciri dari penelitian itu sendiri: (1) pasif, hanya ingin memperoleh gambaran tentang suatu keadaan atau persoalan, (2) aktif, ingin memecahkan suatu persoalan atau menguji suatu hipotesa.

Posisi penelitian sendiri pada umumnya adalah menghubungkan: (1) Keinginan manusia, (2) permasalahan yang timbul, (3) ilmu pengetahuan, dan (4) metode ilmiah.







Lihat resource yang lain:

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Definisi Penelitian

Jenis-jenis Penelitian

Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

Sampling Methods

Components of a Research Proposal

Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

Sample Proposal (Arabic)

Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian Ilmiah


Mengingatkan saya sewaktu pertama kali mendapat tugas untuk mengerjakan proposal pada mata kuliah Metodologi Penelitian. Karena banyak hal (misal bolos kuliah), akhirnya sewaktu bertemu bagian metodologi, saya hanya bisa bingung, “Apa yang harus saya isi pada bagian ini? Apa bisa ‘mengarang indah’?”

Akhirnya saya sedikit mengerti tentang metodologi: (mudahnya kurang lebih begini)



Jika seorang berbicara tentang cara seorang peneliti melakukan percobaan lapangan, dimana dalam menentukan plot di lapangan, ia pertama-tama membagi daerah dalam 4 (empat) buah blok. Kemudian blok-blok tersebut dibagi 4 (empat). Diteruskan dengan memberikan perlakuan pada masing-masing blok tersebut, dan seterusnya. Maka yang dibicarakan di sini adalah Prosedur Penelitian. Jika kita membicarakan bagaimana secara berurut suatu penelitian dilakukan yaitu dengan alat apa dan prosedur bagaimana suatu penelitian dilakukan, maka yang dibicarakan adalah Metode Penelitian.


Berikut ini saya kutipkan beberapa prinsip metodologi dari Titin Supenti dalam Sukses Membuat Proposal .

(http://supermahasiswa.multiply.com/journal/item/5/Sukses_Membuat_Proposal_Penelitian).



Prinsip Metodologi

Metodologi merupakan bagian epistemologi yang mengkaji perihal urutan langkah-langkah yang ditempuh supaya pengetahuan yang diperoleh memenuhi ciri-ciri Ilmiah. Metodologi juga dapat dipandang sebagai bagian dari logika yang mengkaji kaidah penalaran yang tepat. Jika kita membicarakan metodologi maka hal yang tak kalah pentingnya adalah asumsi-asumsi yang melatarbelakangi berbagai metode yang dipergunakan dalam aktivitas ilmiah. Asumsi-asumsi yang dimaksud adalah pendirian atau sikap yang akan dikembangkan para ilmuwan maupun peneliti di dalam kegiatan ilmiah mereka.

Beberapa prinsip metodologi oleh beberapa ahli, diantaranya:



A. Rene Descartes

Dalam karyanya Discourse On Methoda, dikemukakan 6 (enam ) prinsip metodologi yaitu:

Membicarakan masalah ilmu pengetahuan diawali dengan menyebutkan akal sehat (common sense) yang pada umumnya dimiliki oleh semua orang. Akal sehat menurut Descartes ada yang kurang, adapula yang lebih banyak memilikinya, namun yang terpenting adalah penerapannya dalam aktivitas ilmiah.
Menjelaskan kaidah-kaidah pokok tentang metode yang akan dipergunakan dalam aktivitas ilmiah maupun penelitian. Descartes mengajukan 4 (empat) langkah atau aturan yang dapat mendukung metode yang dimaksud yaitu: (1) Jangan pernah menerima baik apa saja sebagai yang benar, jika anda tidak mempunyai pengetahuan yang jelas mengenai kebenarannya. Artinya, dengan cermat hindari kesimpulan-kesimpulan dan pra konsepsi yang terburu-buru dan jangan memasukkan apapun ke dalam pertimbangan anda lebih dari pada yang terpapar dengan begitu jelas sehingga tidak perlu diragukan lagi, (2) Pecahkanlah setiap kesulitan anda menjadi sebanyak mungkin bagian dan sebanyak yang dapat dilakukan untuk mempermudah penyelesaiannya secara lebih baik.(3) Arahkan pemikiran anda secara jernih dan tertib, mulai dari objek yang paling sederhana dan paling mudah diketahui, lalu meningkat sedikit demi sedikit, setahap demi setahap ke pengetahuan yang paling kompleks, dan dengan mengandaikan sesuatu urutan bahkan diantara objek yang sebelum itu tidak mempunyai ketertiban baru. (4) Buatlah penomoran untuk seluruh permasalahan selengkap mungkin, dan adakan tinjauan ulang secara menyeluruh sehingga anda dapat merasa pasti tidak suatu pun yang ketinggalan. (5)Langkah yang digambarkan Descartes ini menggambarkan suatu sikap skeptis metodis dalam memperoleh kebenaran yang pasti.
Menyebutkan beberapa kaidah moral yang menjadi landasan bagi penerapan metode sebagai berikut: (1) Mematuhi undang-undang dan adat istiadat negeri, sambil berpegang pada agama yang diajarkan sejak masa kanak-kanak. (2) Bertindak tegas dan mantap, baik pada pendapat yang paling meyakinkan maupun yang paling meragukan. (3) Berusaha lebih mengubah diri sendiri dari pada merombak tatanan dunia.
Menegaskan pengabdian pada kebenaran yang acap kali terkecoh oleh indera. Kita memang dapat membayangkan diri kita tidak berubah namun kita tidak dapat membayangkan diri kita tidak bereksistensi, karena terbukti kita dapat menyangsikan kebenaran pendapat lain. Oleh karena itu, kita dapat saja meragukan segala sesuatu, namun kita tidak mungkin meragukan kita sendiri yang sedang dalam keadaan ragu-ragu.
Menegaskan perihal dualisme dalam diri manusia yang terdiri atas dua substansi yaitu RESCOGITANS (jiwa bernalar) dan RES-EXTENSA (jasmani yang meluas). Tubuh (Res-Extensa) diibaratkan dengan mesin yang tentunya karena ciptaan Tuhan, maka tertata lebih baik. Atas ketergantungan antara dua kodrat ialah jiwa bernalar dan kodrat jasmani. Jiwa secara kodrat tidak mungkin mati bersama dengan tubuh. Jiwa manusia itu abadi.

B. Alfred Julesayer

Dalam karyanya yang berjudul Language, Truth and Logic yang terkait dengan prinsip metodologi adalah prinsip verifikasi. Terdapat dua jenis verifikasi yaitu:

Verifikasi dalam arti yang ketat (strong verifiable) yaitu sejauh mana kebenaran suatu proposisi (duga-dugaan) itu mendukung pengalaman secara meyakinkan.
Verifikasi dalam arti yang lunak, yaitu jika telah membuka kemungkinan untuk menerima pernyataan dalam bidang sejarah (masa lampau) dan ramalan masa depan sebagai pernyataan yang mengandung makna.
Ayer menampik kekuatiran metafisika dalam dunia ilmiah, karena pernyataan-pernyataan metafisika (termasuk etika theologi) merupakan pernyataan yang MEANING LESS (tidak bermakna) lantaran tidak dapat dilakukan verifikasi apapun


C. Karl Raimund Popper

K.R. Popper seorang filsuf kontemporer yang melihat kelemahan dalam prinsip verifikasi berupa sifat pembenaran (justification) terhadap teori yang telah ada. K.R. Popper mengajukan prinsip verifikasi sebagai berikut:

Popper menolak anggapan umum bahwa suatu teori dirumuskan dan dapat dibuktikan kebenarannya melalui prinsip verifikasi. Teori-teori ilmiah selalu bersifat hipotetis (dugaan sementara), tak ada kebenaran terakhir.
Setiap teori selalu terbuka untuk digantikan oleh teori lain yang lebih tepat.
Cara kerja metode induksi yang secara sistematis dimulai dari pengamatan (observasi) secara teliti gejala (simpton) yang sedang diselidiki. Pengamatan yang berulang -ulang itu akan memperlihatkan adanya ciri-ciri umum yang dirumuskan menjadi hipotesa. Selanjutnya hipotesa itu dikukuhkan dengan cara menemukan bukti-bukti empiris yang dapat mendukungnya. Hipotesa yang berhasil dibenarkan (justifikasi) akan berubah menjadi hukum.
K.R. Popper menolak cara kerja di atas, terutama pada asas verifiabilitas, bahwa sebuah pernyataan itu dapat dibenarkan berdasarkan bukti-bukti verifikasi pengamatan empiris.
K.R Popper menawarkan pemecahan baru dengan mengajukan prinsip FALSIFA BILITAS, yaitu bahwa sebuah pernyataan dapat dibuktikan kesalahannya. Maksudnya sebuah hipotesa, hukum, ataukah teori kebenarannya bersifat sementara, sejauh belum ada ditemukan kesalahan-kesalahan yang ada di dalamnya. Misalnya, jika ada pernyataan bahwa semua angsa berbulu putih melalui prinsip falsifiabilitas itu cukup ditemukan seekor angsa yang bukan berbulu putih (entah hitam, kuning, hijau, dan lain-lain), maka runtuhlah pernyataan tersebut. Namun apabila suatu hipotesa dapat bertahan melawan segala usaha penyangkalan, maka hipotesa tersebut semakin diperkokoh (CORROBORATION).
Akhirnya, semoga peristiwa mengarang indah seperti yang saya lamunkan dapat dihindari dan sekelumit eceran informasi ini bisa mengisi penelitian yang benar indah.



Sumber: http://supermahasiswa.multiply.com/journal/item/5/Sukses_Membuat_Proposal_Penelitian.







Lihat resource yang lain:

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Definisi Penelitian

Jenis-jenis Penelitian

Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

Sampling Methods

Components of a Research Proposal

Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

Sample Proposal (Arabic)

Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan

Sample Proposal (English)

ample Proposal (English)





All research reports use roughly the same format. It doesn't matter whether you've done a customer satisfaction survey, an employee opinion survey, a health care survey, or a marketing research survey. All have the same basic structure and format. The rationale is that readers of research reports (i.e., decision makers, funders, etc.) will know exactly where to find the information they are looking for, regardless of the individual report.

Once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing, you can apply them to any research discipline. The same rules apply to writing a proposal, a thesis, a dissertation, or any business research report.

The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and the rules are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style guide contains hundreds of rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the most important ones.


Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The researcher will ..." or "The research team will ...".

A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation, or research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft, will interpreted as such, and you can expect extensive and liberal modifications. Take the time to put your paper in perfect APA format before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will then be perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.



Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

The researcher has chosen to study the language usage in the Philippines because the country is the classic example of local language policy. For over five hundred years this interference affected language usage in all sectors of life. The Philippine became an American territory on the day the Treaty of Paris was signed. The first and perhaps the master stroke in the plan to use education as an instrument of colonial policy, was the decision to use English as the medium of instruction. With American textbooks, Filipinos started learning not only a new language but also a new way of life, alien to their traditions. Based on Ethnological Databases in 1980, 52% of Filipinos in the Philippines claim to speak English as a second language. If accurate, this makes the Philippines one of the largest English speaking countries in the world. The use of English in almost every domain of Philippine life gave birth to a new variety of English, called Philippine English. Due to the multi-dialectical attribute of the Philippine, substrata varieties of Philippine English also exist (Agana, 1999).

Having lived and worked in the Philippines for a period of nearly eight nearly eight years, the researcher was constantly aware of the problems arising from this special situation. This personal experience will be invaluable in guiding the consideration of the issues and the proposals the researcher intends to make, based on this study, for future language policy.



1.2. Statement of the Problem

The present language and educational situation serves as an impetus for the researcher to study the influences of the English language in the Philippines by tracing its presence and influences from the early 1800’s to the present by looking at the language and educational policies and programs formulated and implemented across the generations. In other words, the problem here deals with the historical development of English used in the Philippines and Filipino, the national language of the Philippines.

The problems to be discussed in this research are:

1. Why is English used as the medium of instruction in all schools and universities?

2. What is the importance of English usage in educational system in relation to student's social life and future opportunities?

To answer these questions, the writer embarked on an intensive research work geared towards the ample fulfillment of these answers and several outlying questions.



1.3. Objectives of the Study

The general objectives of this study are:

to analyze how American-English affects language policies and programs of the Philippines in terms of educational system;

to analyze how American-English affection was institutionalized in the educational system.

The special objectives of this study are:

to look at educational and language policies and see up to what extent these language policies and programs in educational system are influenced by English presence in Philippine society;

to find out the present status of the English language among Filipinos, as the result of bilingual educational system from 1974 until 1980s.



1.4. Significance of the Study

This study is particularly important because debates as to the reinstatement of English as the sole media of instruction in Philippine schools and universities are presently taking center stage given the steadily worsening performance of students in national entrance examinations and professional licensing exams given in English. Not a few blame the current Bilingual Education Policy of the Department of Education, which they contend only serves to confuse students given its dual aim of promoting both English and Filipino. Those who purposely diminish English importance in the country are to go against what the rest of the world is doing.

This research is connected with social development of tile Philippines in relation to the usage of English and development of Filipino (Tagalog) language since this language is still developing. The researcher hopes to give light on these points, to investigate the influences American - English has over the country's language policies and why it is constantly mired in Philippine language controversies, and also how to develop better language policies in bilingual education system.



1.5. Definition of Key Terms

Language Planning- Deliberate language change; changes in the system of language code or speaking or both that are planned by organizations that are established for such purpose or given a mandate to fulfill such purposes.
Bilingual Education - Simultaneous teaching of two more language dialects or vernaculars. In case of the Philippines, English and Pilipino / Filipino are to be taught in schools and colleges. Experiments were done in 1960- 1966 and proved the value of adequately trained teachers, carefully prepared materials, and excellent supervision. This study disproved notion that the teaching or use of three languages simultaneously would confuse children. (Rubin, J and Jernudd, B.(eds) 1975).
Pilipino/Filipino- Pilipino is the national language of the Philippines, an artificial language in development. From Pilippino a new language shall be developed, which will be called later as Filipino. Pilipino will then be replaced by Filipino as the national language. Pilipino is derived from Tagalog. Tagalog became the basis of the Pilipino language.
Tagalog- was the dialect spoken in the eight united Philippine provinces during Spanish colonial rule. It is the lingua franca of Manila and its neighboring provinces and is understood in almost of the part of Luzon. Manila is the seat of the Government; became the basis of Pilipino/Filipino. No other dialect is widely spoken or understood. It also dominates the Philippine cultural lifestyle. (www.angelfire.com/aka/RJPA/ Directory/ecolinguistics.html) 27.2.2006.


Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The writer has extensively covered studies and works of both Filipino and other foreign authorship in preparing for this study. The following works contributed and helped the researcher a great deal in this present study.

Regarding the early presence of American-English in the Philippines, the researcher obtained references from Cuesta (1958). Cuesta gave an account of the English language during the American Regime. It was stated that as early as 1903, the American government began sending Filipino students to American colleges and upon their return they were assigned to teach in public schools. She likewise delved into me major phases of the English language which proved difficult for Filipinos. These phases included pronunciation, grammar, rhetoric, style and idioms.

On the present Bilingual Education Policy (BEP), scholarly works have been written by authors like Pascasio (1973), Bonifacio (1977), Ramos (1990), Otanes, Sevilla, Gonzalez, Segovia and Sibayan (1988).

Gonzalez and Sibayan (1988) for instance, made a comprehensive study regarding the scholastic achievements nationwide after eleven years of the Bilingual Education Policy’s implementation. Also teacher competence and proficiency was measured through a battery of tests.

Sibayan and Gonzalez’s study revealed that: 1) almost all adults (administration, faculty and parents), except for the Pilipino faculty, were non-committal towards the BEP and were not favorably disposed to the expanded use of Pilipino; 2) Pilipino teachers in general, when compared with the rest of the faculty, fare badly and are not significantly better in Pilipino than their peers, and 3). Tagalog students enjoy a real advantage over non-Tagalogs. It is recommended by the survey team that compensatory education be given to students from minority groups to mitigate this inequality.

In a similar study to Sibayan and Gonzalez’s, Segovia (1988) investigated the BEP’s implementation in the tertiary level. Segovia and her team concluded that based on their findings, tertiary level administrators, teachers, professors, and students perceive Pilipino to be the language of unity and/or national identity; however, one can be a nationalist even without the facility for communication in Pilipino. The respondents perceive English as a language of socio-economic mobility, educational advancement and international understanding.

Sevilla’s (1988) study gave the writer an idea of the awareness levels regarding the BEP among parents and among government and non-government organizations. Sevilla’s study provided the basis for the writer’s report on English’ presence and utilization in the government and business scenes.

Of valuable assistance are the works of Fishman, Pascasio and Bowen on bilingualism included in Sibayan and Gonzalez’s edited work “Language Planning and the Building of a National Language” (1977).

Works related to the researcher’s topic are quite numerous. However, the above mentioned works provided the bulk of the materials used by the researcher in writing this study.



Chapters 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY


3.1. Research Framework

The framework from this study is a historical research which is based on the chronological events. This research is synthesized, abstracted and explored from theories and scientific thinking in order to solve the problem.


3.2. Research Method

In preparation for this study the researcher will trace the introduction of American English in the Philippines, using a historical approach. From there the researcher will consider the status of American English in the country at present, taking careful note of the gradual integration of American English into Philippine society, particularly education. It is the educational system which is the main channel through which language policies are carried out.

Historical research has been defined as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events (Borg, 1963). It qualifies as a scientific endeavor from the standpoint of its subscription to the same principles and the same general scholarship that characterizes all scientific research.

The values of historical research have been categorized by Hill and Garber (1950) as follows:

It enables solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the past;

It throws light on present and future trends;

It stresses the relative importance and the effects of the various interactions that are to be found within all cultures;

It allows for the revolution of data in relation to selected hypothesis, theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past.

There are drawbacks to historical research. It is an attempt to reconstruct a previous age using data from the personal experiences of others, from documents and records. Researchers have to contend with inadequate information so that their reconstructions tend to be sketches rather than portraits.

Ultimately, historical research is concerned with a broad view of the conditions and not necessarily the specifics which bring them about, even though such a synthesis is rarely achieved without intense debate or controversy, especially on matters of detail. Despite these drawbacks, the ability of history to employ the past to predict the future, and to use the present to explain the past, gives it a dual and unique quality which makes it especially useful for all sorts of scholarly study and research.

Indeed the particular value of historical research in the field of education is unquestioned. It can yield insights into some educational problems that could not be achieved by any other means. Furthermore, it can help to establish a sound basis for further progress and change, and show how and why educational theories and practices developed. It enables educationalists to use former practices to evaluate newer, emerging ones and it can contribute to fuller understanding of the relationship between politics and education. These elements are always interrelated.

Historical research may be structured by a flexible sequence of stages beginning with the selection and evaluation of a problem or area of study. Then follows the definition of the problem in more precise terms, the selection of sources of data, collection, classification and processing of the data, and, finally, the evaluation and synthesis of the data into a balanced and objective account of the subject under investigation. The principle difference between the method of historical research and other research method used in education is highlighted by Borg:

“In historical research, it is especially important that the student carefully defines his problem and appraises its appropriateness before committing too fully. Many problems are not adaptable to historical research methods and cannot be adequately treated using this approach.” (Borg, 1963)

Once a topic has been selected and its potential and significance for historical research evaluated, the next stage is to define it more precisely, or delimit it so that a more potent analysis will result. Too broad or too vague a statement can result in the final report lacking direction or impact “Research must be a penetrating analysis of a limited problem, rather than the superficial examination of a broad area. The weapon of research is the rifle not the shotgun” (Best, 1970). Gottschalk (1951) recommends that four questions be asked in identifying a topic:

Where do the events take place?

Who are the people involved?

When do the events occur?

What kinds of human activity are involved?

As Travers (1969) suggests, the scope of a topic can be modified by adjusting the focus of any one of the four categories; the geographical area involved can be increased or decreased; more or fewer people can be included in the topic; the time span involved can be increased or decreased; and the human activity category can be broadened or narrowed.

The student must exercise strict self-control in his study of historical documents or he will find himself collecting much information that is interesting but is not related to his area of inquiry (Hockett, 1955).

This research approach is qualitative, which means the following:

(The researcher) captures and discovers meaning once he becomes immersed in the data.

Concepts are in the form of themes, motifs, generalizations, and taxonomies.

Measures are created in an ad hoc manner and are often specific to the individual setting or researcher.

Data are in the form of words from documents, observations, and transcripts.

Theory can be causal or non causal and is often inductive.

Research procedures are particular and replication is very rare.

Analysis proceeds by extracting themes or generalizations from evidence and organizing data to present a coherent, consistent picture (Neuman, 1994).

It is historical and chronological, putting all the historical data in chronological order. Due to limited sources, most of the research done for this work will be based on a survey of the published works of noted Philippine and foreign linguists, language planners, and educators.



3.3. Research Data

One of the principal differences between historical research and other forms of research is that historical research must deal with data that already exists.

“History is not science of direct observation, like chemistry or physics. The historian like the geologist interprets past events by the traces they have left; he deals with the evidence of man’s past acts and thought. But the historian, no less than scientist, must utilize evidence resulting on reliable observation. The difference in procedure is due to the fact that the historian usually does not make his own observations, and that those upon whose observations he must depend are, or were, often if not usually untrained observers. Historical method is...a process supplementary to observations, a process by which the historian attempts to test the truthfulness of the reports of observations made by others” (Hockett, 1955).



3.4. Research Instruments

Sources of data may be classified into two main groups: primary sources, which are the life blood of historical research; and secondary sources, which may be used in the absence of, or to supplement, primary data.

Primary sources of data have been described as those items that are original to the problem under study. Category two includes not only written and oral testimony given by actual participants or witnesses, but also the participants themselves. Whether or not these sources were meant for the intent purpose of passing on information is irrelevant. If a source is, intentionally or unintentionally, capable of transmitting a first-hand account of an event, it is considered a source of primary data.

Secondary sources are those that do not bear a direct physical relationship to the event being studied. This includes third person accounts etc. Best (1970) points out those secondary sources are of limited worth because of the errors that result when information is passed on from one person to another. The importance of using primary sources where possible cannot be stressed enough. The value, too, of secondary sources should not be minimized.

The review of the literature in other forms of educational research is regarded as a preparatory stage to gathering data and serves to acquaint researchers with previous research on the topics they are studying (Travers, 1969). The function of the review of the literature in historical research is different in that it provides the data for research; the researchers’ acceptance or otherwise of their hypotheses will depend on their selection of information from the review and the interpretation they put on it. Borg (1963) has identified other differences: one is that the historical researcher will have to peruse longer documents than the empirical researcher who normally studies articles very much more succinct and precise. And one final point document in education often consists of unpublished material and is therefore less accessible than reports of empirical studies in professional journals.



3.5. Scope and Research Location

3.5.1. Scope

The scope of this research is the influence of American-English on Philippine language planning and policy. The research work done on this work is primarily concerned itself with the investigation of these influences of American-English on Philippine language policies as implemented in the educational system and the effects thereof.

This study also gives a brief account of the still existing Philippine language controversy and the “entrenchment and assimilation” of American-English in Philippine Media, Government and the society as a whole.

It would be most ideal to be able to report on the actual processes that take place in the formulation. Planning and implementation of language policies and interviewing members of the Philippine language Cultivation Council and/or of the Language Planning Board could have been carried out. However due to time and resource constraints, and their unavailability for an audience, this remains to be an ideal.



3.5.2. Research Location

The research location was inhabitants of Manila, Dagupan City, Baguio City, and Ilocos region. The researcher met and interviewed them. The researcher will elaborate this topic later in the dissertation.



3.6. Data Collection Technique

Data and information gathered from records and documents must be carefully evaluated so as to attest their worth for the purpose of the particular study. Evaluation of historical data and information is often referred to historical criticism and the reliable data yielded by the process are known as historical evidence. Historical evidence has thus been described as that body of validated facts and information which can be accepted as trustworthy. Historical criticism is usually undertaken in two stages: first, the authenticity of the source is appraised; and second, the accuracy or worth of the data is evaluated. These two processes are known as external and internal criticism respectively.

External criticism is concerned with establishing the authenticity or genuineness of data. It authenticates the document (or other source) itself rather than the information it contains. It therefore sets out to uncover frauds, forgeries, hoaxes, inventions or distortions.

After the document authenticity has been established, the next task is to evaluate the accuracy and worth of the data contained therein. This presents a more difficult problem than external criticism does. The credibility of the author of the documents has to be established. A number of factors must be taken into account, that is 1) whether they were trained observers of the events, 2) kinds of their relationships to the events, 3) to what extent they were under pressure, from fear or vanity, to distort or omit facts, 4) what the intents of the authors of the documents were, 5) to what extent they were experts at recording those particular events, 6) they were too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give true picture, 7) how long after the event they recorded their account, and 8) whether they are in agreement with other independent witnesses.

A particular problem that arises from these questions is that of bias. There are three generally recognized sources of bias: those arising from the subject being interviewed, those arising from themselves as researchers and those arising from the subject-researcher interaction (Travers, 1969).



3.6.1. Data Collected from People

The researcher met people in Dagupan City and distributed questionnaires, and the respondents answered and the researcher collected the data in 1987. The discussion oh this topic will be discussed further in the dissertation.

3.6.2. Data Collected from Documents

The researcher collected documents from Philippine Government archives, and various bureaus. The discussion on these documents will be elaborated in the dissertation.



Bibliography

Alzona, E. 1932. History of Education in the Philippines: 1965-1930. 1st ed. Manila: University of the Philippines Press.







Lihat resource yang lain:

Prinsip Metodologi Penelitian

Definisi Penelitian

Jenis-jenis Penelitian

Kode Etik Penelitian di Internet

How to Do Ethnographic Research: A Simplified Guide

Sampling Methods

Components of a Research Proposal

Rencana Kerja Penulisan Proposal Skripsi

Sample Proposal (English)

Sample Proposal (Arabic)

Proposal Penelitian Kualitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kuantitatif

Proposal Penelitian Kajian Pustaka

Proposal Penelitian Pengembangan